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Table of Contents

• Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Emissions/Carbon Cycling/Sequestration
• Air Quality
• Animal Performance
• Animal Welfare
• Arthropod/Insect
• Biodiversity
• Economics
• Erosion
• Fertilizer
• Food Supply
• Fungi (Mycorrhizal)
• Fungi (Non-specific)
• Human Public Health
• Nutrition (Animal)
• Nutrition (Human)
• Pesticides
• Pharmaceuticals
• Plant Production
• Soil Physical Qualities
• Soil Predator/Prey
• Water Quality
• Weather

Agricultural
Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Current GHG Emissions

• United States– In 2021, U.S.
  greenhouse gas emissions totaled 6.34 Gt CO₂e, or 5.59 Gt
  CO₂e of carbon dioxide equivalents after accounting for sequestration
  from the land sector. (EPA,
  2022)
• Worldwide– 54.6 Gt CO₂e. Appears to
  be net after land and ocean sequestration of C taken into account. (Global
  Carbon Project, 2021).

Current Agricultural GHG
Emissions

• United States– .5-.59 Gt CO₂eq/yr based on
  2021 values. (roughly 10% of total U.S. emissions) (EPA,
  ES19)
• Worldwide– 13.6 Gt CO₂eq/yr (roughly
  a 25% of global CO₂eq emissions) (EPA , Our
  World in Data)

• 22% of 2010
  global greenhouse gas emissions: Greenhouse gas emissions from Ag, Forest
  and other land uses sector come mostly from agriculture (cultivation
  of crops and livestock) and deforestation. This estimate does not include
  the CO2 that ecosystems remove from the atmosphere by sequestering
  carbon in biomass, dead organic matter, and soils, which offset
  approximately 20% of emissions from this sector. (FAO,
  2014)

• Our assessment shows that
  globally, GHG emissions from domestic ruminants represent 11.6% (1.58 Gt
  C y^–1) of total anthropogenic
  emissions, while cropping and soil-associated emissions contribute 13.7%
  (1.86 Gt C y–1). The primary source is soil erosion (1 Gt C y^–1), which in
  the United States alone is estimated at 1.72 Gt of soil y^–1. (Teague
  et al., 2016)

Historic
Soil Carbon Levels

• Globally, soils
  contain ~1500 Gt C — more carbon than in the atmosphere and plant biomass
  combined — meaning that some 75% of all terrestrial carbon is stored
  belowground at any one time (Scharlemann
  et al., 2014).
• May 2023
  Atmospheric CO₂ levels: 420 ppm (NOAA,
  2023)

• Jan 1975: 335
  ppm (NOAA,
  2023)

• Based on this estimate, 13.12 Gt
  of CO2e fixed by terrestrial plants is, at least temporarily, allocated to
  the underground mycelium of mycorrhizal fungi per year, equating to ∼36% of current annual CO₂ emissions from
  fossil fuels. (Heidi-Jayne
  Hawkins et al., 2023)
• Global surveys have typically
  focused on the 0– 30 cm topsoil layer (Bell et al., 2011), but it is now
  known that as much as 50% of soil carbon is stored below 30 cm (Lal, 2018;
  Rumpel & Kögel-Knabner, 2011). This is because the volume of subsoil
  is far greater than the topsoil, even though the concentration of organic
  carbon in the subsoil is lower than topsoil. (Antony
  et al., 2021)
• In concert with soil edaphic
  factors, these Ecophysiologic Elements (EE’s) and pathways of SOC
  accumulation govern final SOC distribution into different soil organic
  matter fractions: Particulate Organic Matter and Mineral-Associated
  Organic Matter (Figure 1d). In
  grazinglands, SOC is distributed on average 70%–72% to MAOM and 28%–30% to
  POM (Lugato et al., 2021; Sokol et al.,
  2022). However, the
  proportion of SOC in MAOM may vary from 25% to 75% (Rocci et al., 2022), and
  extremely coarsely textured soils may have only 10%–25% SOC in MAOM
  (Silveira et al., 2014).

Cattle
& Methane

• Most recent estimations from data
  over the past decade (2008–2017) indicate a total average net methane
  production of 737 Tg CH₄ year^–1 from all
  sources (ranging from 594 to 881 Tg CH₄ year^–1) (Figure 1),
  whereas total terrestrial and aquatic sinks are estimated at an average of
  625 Tg CH4 year^–1 (ranging from 500 to 798 Tg CH₄ year^–1) leaving a
  positive net average balance of 112 Tg CH₄ year^–1 escaping into
  the atmosphere (Saunois
  et al., 2020). 
• The global
  population of cattle decreased slightly from 1,001.72 million in 2012 to
  1,000.97 million in 2021. (Shahbandeh,
  2021) This global decline in ruminant populations means that they add
  less new methane to the atmosphere than old methane is being removed,
  which should lead to a reduced atmospheric methane concentration. (Lynch et al., 2020)  However, methane
  concentrations are increasing (see figure 1). This could either indicate a
  change of other emission sources, or a reduction of methane sinks, or
  both. (Bruce-Iri
  et al. 2021)

• METHANE FACT:
  Within only 12 years, methane emissions are removed from atmosphere by one
  of several methane sinks. Reay
  et al. (2010) list three sinks for methane:
  tropospheric hydroxyl radicals (OH), stratospheric losses, and soils. (Bruce-Iri
  et al. 2021)

 

Grassland
GHG/Carbon Storage

• Soils are an important
  GHG sink (Rumpel
  et al., 2018), and grassland, which covers
  about 25 % of Earth’s terrestrial surface, store around 30 % of the global
  carbon stocks in soil (Adams et al., 1990; Bailey et
  al., 2010; Lal,
  2004; Ojima
  et al., 1993).
• Peatlands store
  approximately one-third of the global soil carbon pool. (Larmola
  et al., 2013)
• As a result of
  high crop prices during 2006-2015 (USDA-NASS 2019c), an estimated
  2.3 million ha of grassland were converted to cropland, with a majority of
  this conversion in the Northern Great Plains. (Smart
  et al. 2019)
• From 2008-2016,
  croplands have expanded at a rate of over one million acres per year, and
  69.5% of new cropland areas produced yields below the national average,
  with a mean yield deficit of 6.5%. Grasslands, including those used for
  pasture and hay, constituted 88% of the land converted to crop production
  across the US. (Lark
  et al., 2020)

Natural
Carbon Cycling

• Natural
  processes on land and ocean have removed roughly 55% of emitted CO₂, but it may be
  possible to enhance both the uptake and longer-term sequestration
  potential of these processes. (National
  Academies)
• The persistence
  of organic carbon in soils, sometimes for millennia, is well documented in
  the literature. However, the persistence of a carbon atom does not
  necessarily mean that the atom itself is still in the original molecule in
  which it was originally added to the soil. (Gleixner,
  2013)

• Plant-derived
  signals from cellulose and lignin are typically lost quickly—within a few
  years—and are only found in particulate organic matter that forms a minor
  carbon fraction in mineral soil (Grandy and Neff 2008; Bol et al. 2009; Miltner et
  al. 2009). (Gleixner,
  2013)

• When
  considering mechanisms of formation, persistence, and function,
  particulate organic matter (POM) and mineral-associated organic matter
  (MAOM) are fundamentally different SOM components. Generally speaking, POM
  is largely made up of lightweight fragments that are relatively
  undecomposed, while MAOM consists of single molecules or microscopic
  fragments of organic material that have either leached directly from plant
  material or been chemically transformed by the soil biota. The defining
  difference between them is that MAOM is protected from decomposition
  through association with soil minerals, while POM is not. (Lavallee
  et al., 2019)

• MAOM, being longer lived, is the
  focus of most research on SOM accrual and sequestration. Targeting MAOM
  for SOM sequestration makes sense from a persistence perspective, but it
  may not always be feasible because MAOM can saturate (Gulde, Chung,
  Amelung, Chang, & Six, 2008; Hassink,
  Whitmore, & Kubat, 1997; Stewart,
  Paustian, Conant, Plante, & Six, 2007), while POM
  cannot. (Lavallee
  et al., 2019)

• Intensively managed arable soils are strong sinks for stabilized C.
  Fine-textured soils have a greater capacity to stabilize C than
  coarse-textured soils. Mineral-associated organic matter (MAOM) is formed
  more efficiently from root than from shoot residues. (Kastovska
  et al., 2024)

Conventional Agriculture’s
Influence on Carbon Cycling/GHG Emissions

• Food security
  relies on nitrogen fertilizers, but its production and use account for
  approximately 5% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. (Gao
  & Serrenho, 2023)

• We found that
  approximately two-thirds of fertilizer emissions take place after their
  deployment in croplands. Increasing nitrogen-use efficiency is the single
  most effective strategy to reduce emissions. (Gao
  & Serrenho, 2023)

• Since
  tillage-based farming began, most agricultural soils have lost 30% to 75%
  of their soil organic carbon (SOC), with industrial agriculture
  accelerating these losses (Delgado
  et al. 2011).

• By converting
  land for agricultural use over recent millennia, but especially over the
  past 200 years, humanity has consumed large amounts of SOM by
  accelerating its rates of mineralization and erosion over those of
  organic matter inputs into the soil and soil formation, resulting in a
  global estimated loss of 133 Pg carbon (C) from the top 2 m of soils (Sanderman
  et al., 2017) (Cotrufo
  and Lavallee, 2022)

• In a global analysis, Sanderman
  et al. (2017) found that the largest SOC
  losses coincide with cropping regions but grazing, especially in arid and
  semiarid regions that are globally more extensive, was responsible for at
  least half of the total SOC loss. (Teague
  & Kreuger, 2020)
• Biomes that are predominantly
  grasslands and savannas lost more SOC than the cropland and crop/natural
  vegetation categories, and the regions that have lost the most SOC
  relative to historic levels include the rangelands of Argentina, southern
  Africa and Australia. (Teague
  & Kreuger, 2020)

Regenerative
Agriculture’s Influence on Carbon Cycling/GHG Emissions

• Of 80 ways to
  moderate climate change, regenerative agricultural practices—such as
  silvopasture, managed grazing, tree intercropping, conservation
  agriculture, and farmland restoration—collectively rank number one as ways
  to sequester GHG. (Hawken,
  2017)
• Drawdown of
  4.94 ton CO₂eq/acre/yr w/ AMP grazing & 1.21 ton CO₂eq/acre/yr w/
  Set-stock at Low Density. (Data
  Under Peer-Review, Peter Byck)
• Overall, the
  availability of water seems to be the dominant control of carbon dioxide
  uptake by land vegetation. (Jung et al., 2017 , Humphrey
  et al., 2018 , Green
  et al., 2019)
• MP grazing is
  the greatest sink for methane and produces the least N₂O compared to
  moderate stock (MC) conventional and high-stock (HC) conventional grazing.
  (Dowhower
  et al., 2020)

• AMP grazing
  had the highest and HC the lowest CO₂ emissions,
  indicating higher levels of soil respiration, an index of soil microbial
  activity, with AMP.

• While
  cumulative fluxes of N₂O were
  independent of the grazing system, CH₄ uptake was 1.5
  times greater in soils from AMP-grazed than non-AMP-grazed grasslands (p
  < 0.001). At 5 °C, AMP soils emitted 17% more CO₂ compared to
  non-AMP soils, while at 25 °C, AMP soils emitted 18% less CO₂ than non-AMP
  soils. 

• The cumulative
  uptake of CH₄ during the incubation period
  was affected by the grazing system, soil temperature, and moisture (Table
  1). Methane uptake was 2.6-fold greater in AMP soils
  in comparison to non-AMP soils. (Shrestha
  et al., 2020)

• AMP grazing
  sites had on average 13% (i.e., 9 Mg C ha⁻¹) more soil C
  and 9% (i.e., 1 Mg N ha⁻¹) more soil N
  compared to the Conventional Grazing sites over a 1 m depth. In AMP, C
  shifted to more persistent organic matter, suggesting long-term C storage.
  The stocks’ difference was mostly in the mineral-associated organic matter
  fraction in the A-horizon, suggesting long-term persistence of soil C in
  AMP grazing farms. (Mosier
  et al., 2021)

• Across all
  pairs, the increase in soil organic C stocks was most pronounced in the
  A-horizon depth, but was significantly higher at each depth increment
  down to 50 cm. (Mosier
  et al., 2021)

• The transition
  from crop to pasture systems results in an average 19% increase in soil C
  stocks (Guo
  & Gifford, 2002). In our intensively grazed
  systems, we report an ∼75% increase in
  C stocks within 6 years of conversion. (Machmuller et al.,
  2015)

• In our
  pastures, we find that peak C accumulation occurs 2–6 years after pasture
  establishment with a gain of 8.0±0.85 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the upper
  30 cm of soil. Following an apparent lag in the first 2 years, the most
  recently established farm (converted in 2009) accumulated C at
  4.6 Mg C ha−1 yr⁻¹, the
  middle-established farm (converted in 2008) accumulated C at an average
  rate of 9.0 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, while the
  earliest-established farm (converted in 2006) accumulated C at
  2.9 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ before an
  apparent decline in the accumulation rate at 6.5 years following
  conversion. (Machmuller
  et al., 2015)

• Similar
  greenhouse gas emission estimates for both wildlife and pastoralism (76.2
  vs 76.5 Mg CO₂-eq km⁻²) were found in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. (Manzano
  et al., 2023)
• Comparison of
  eight neighboring farms across the United States found that regenerative
  farms had 3% to 12% soil organic matter (mean = 6.3%), whereas those on
  conventional farms had 2% to 5% (mean = 3.5%). (Montgomery
  et al., 2022)
• No-till (NT)
  and cropping system intensification increase SOC (11.3% and 12.4%,
  respectively), MAOC (8.5% and 7.1%, respectively), and POC (19.7% and
  33.3%, respectively) in topsoil (0 to 20 cm), but not in subsoil (>20
  cm). No-Till synergized with integrated crop–livestock (ICL) systems
  greatly increase POC (38.1%) and cropping intensification synergized with
  ICL systems to greatly increase MAOC (33.1 to 53.6%). (Prairie
  et al., 2023)

• Prairie said
  his analysis shows that impacts from regenerative practices don’t begin
  showing up in terms of soil carbon until approximately six years after
  implementation. (Prairie
  et al., 2023)

• Across-farm SOC
  data showed a 4-year C sequestration rate of 3.59 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in AMP grazed
  pastures. After including SOC in the GHG footprint estimates, finishing
  emissions from the AMP system were reduced from 9.62 to −6.65 kg CO₂-e kg carcass
  weight (CW)⁻¹, whereas FL emissions (grain-finished) increased slightly from 6.09
  to 6.12 kg CO₂-e kg CW⁻¹ due to soil erosion. (Stanley
  et al., 2018)

• Soil erosion
  due to feed production in the FL scenario contributed 22.76 kg CO2-e
  (0.03 kg CO2 kg CW⁻¹). (Stanley
  et al., 2018)

• Soil C stocks
  increased with species richness. More C was stored in the top layer (0–7.5
  cm) than in the second soil layer (7.5–15 cm). (Cong
  et al., 2014)

• Root biomass increased
  with species richness from 433 g m⁻² on average in
  monoculture to 685 g m⁻² on average in
  the mixture of the eight plant species. (Cong
  et al., 2014)

• In cornfields,
  fine Particulate OM of the soil was strongly and positively associated
  with regenerative matrix scores. (Fenster
  et al., 2021)
• AMF increased P_n (Carbon
  sequestration by plants) of four species ranging from 15.3% to 33.1% and
  carbon storage, averaged by 17.2% compared to controls. Soil organic
  carbon (OC), easily extractable glomalin-relation soil protein (EE-GRSP)
  and total glomalin-relation soil protein (T-GRSP) were significantly
  increased by AMF treatment. (Wang et al., 2016)

• The positive
  AMF function is through higher availability of nutrients and altered
  carbon allocation, thus promoting plant growth, especially increasing
  leaf area, chlorophyll content, and the Q₁₀ (the
  temperature sensitivity of R_s (Carbon
  release to the atmosphere) which is derived from substrate availability)
  value. (Wang et al., 2016) 

• Predation of
  nematode bacterivores exhibited indirectly positive associations with the
  sizes and turnover rates of SOC pools in the macroaggregates. (Jiang
  et al., 2018)
• A Quantis Life
  Cycle Analysis found that White Oak Pastures’ regenerative grazing system
  averaged 3 kg CO₂-eq/kg Carcass Weight (CW) compared to 16 kg CO₂-eq/kg CW in
  the conventional model. Overall, the report found net emissions of -3.5 kg
  CO₂-eq emissions per kg fresh meat from White Oak Pastures. (Thorbecke
  & Dettling, 2019)
• On-farm
  analysis of soil C accrual at White Oak Pastures (WOP) revealed a
  sequestration rate of 2.29 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, on average,
  over 20 years of Multi-Species Pasture Rotation adoption. After
  incorporating this into our LCA boundaries, this reduced the GHG footprint
  of the MSPR system by 80% (from 20.8 to 4.1 kg CO2-e kg CW−1), ultimately
  finishing at 66% lower than comparative conventional, commodity (COM)
  production. (Rowntree
  et al., 2020)
• Recent studies
  of managed grazing have reported significant (320 kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹; Becker
  et al. 2022) to moderate (840 kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹; Franzluebbers,
  2010) to very high (~3,590 kg C ha^–1 yr^–1; Stanley
  et al., 2018) accumulations of soil C under
  well-managed grazed pastures. The value of soil C increase making Scenario
  B net zero was ∼1,630 kg C ha^–1 yr^–1, while the
  soil C change from Stanley
  et al., 2018 resulted in a system C balance
  equivalent to taking ∼23 coal-fired
  power plants offline! (Jackson,
  2022)

• Annual
  grain-feedlot systems did not become atmospheric C sinks until the maize
  soils were accumulating ∼3,300 kg C ha^–1 yr^–1, an
  exceedingly high and unlikely value. (Jackson,
  2022)

• Analysis of
  soil organic C (SOC) stocks during the first 20 years of the Wisconsin
  Integrated Cropping Systems Trial study showed that annual row crop
  agriculture lost 5.5 Mg C ha⁻¹, while
  rotationally grazed pasture was a significant sink to 0–60 cm depth (5.1
  Mg ha⁻¹). (Sanford
  2022)
• On average,
  pastures in southern and central Wisconsin had 12.41 Mg ha⁻¹ more SOC in
  surface soils (0–15 cm, roughly 6 inches) than their row crop
  counterparts, but were not different in subsurface soils (15–30 cm,
  roughly 6-12 inches). (Becker
  et al., 2022)

• Soil organic C
  and Particulate OM-C increased linearly with pasture age (∼32 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹). (Becker
  et al., 2022)

• “The soil
  carbon change data that I got on resampling baseline plots (on North
  America from 2011-2021) was noisy and variable, especially in the top
  layers (0-10 cm depth). There were some pockets of consistent change, such
  as a group of graziers in southeast Saskatchewan showing substantial
  increases, even down to the 40 cm depth that I often sampled to. But the
  majority of change data that I collected did not offer solid support to
  the hypothesis that holistic planned grazing or no-till, for example, in a
  few years would increase soil carbon in every circumstance or locale, or
  that soil carbon would faithfully reflect changes in forage production,
  soil cover, or diversity.” (Peter
  Donovan, Soil Carbon Coalition)
• Crop diversity
  increased soil biological health in both annual and perennial systems.
  Rotated annuals with a cover crop increased permanganate oxidizable C (POXC)
  and soil organic matter relative to continuous corn (Zea mays L.).
  Perennial polycultures also had 88% and 23% greater mineralizable C
  relative to the annual and monoculture perennial systems, respectively. (Sprunger
  et al., 2020)
• Three
  indicators of soil quality–particulate organic matter carbon, microbial
  biomass carbon, and potentially mineralizable nitrogen–were 22% to 51%
  higher in the 3-year and 4-year rotations than in the 2-year rotation. (Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)
• Cover cropping
  simultaneously increased yields and SOC in 59.7% of 434 paired
  observations. Increases in SOC directly increased crop yields in soils
  with initial SOC concentrations below 11.6 g kg⁻¹; for example,
  a change from 5 g kg⁻¹ to 6 g kg⁻¹ increased
  yields by +2.4%. (Vendig
  et al., 2023)

 

Air Quality

Importance
of Air Quality

• To date, air
  pollution – both ambient (outdoor) and household (indoor) – is the biggest
  environmental risk to health, carrying responsibility for about one in
  every nine deaths annually. (WHO,
  2016)

Confined
animal feeding operations (CAFO)

• Large farms can
  produce more waste than some U.S. cities—a feeding operation with 800,000
  pigs could produce over 1.6 million tons of waste a year. That amount is
  one and a half times more than the annual sanitary waste produced by the
  city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (GAO, 2008)

• Annually, it
  is estimated that livestock animals in the U.S. produce each year
  somewhere between 3 and 20 times more manure than people in the U.S.
  produce, or as much as 1.2–1.37 billion tons of waste (EPA,
  2005). Though sewage treatment plants are required for
  human waste, no such treatment facility exists for livestock waste. (CDC,
  2010)

• The most
  typical pollutants found in air surrounding CAFOs are ammonia, hydrogen
  sulfide, methane, and particulate matter, all of which have varying human
  health risks. (CDC,
  2010)
• Results from
  confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs) of swine in North Carolina show
  that the average ammonia gas concentrations in hot spots for 2000 and 2010
  were 2.5–3-times higher than the average concentration in the entire
  watershed. (Ogneva-Himmelberger
  et al., 2015)
• Researchers in
  North Carolina found that the closer children live to a CAFO, the greater
  the risk of asthma symptoms. (Barrett,
  2006)
• The prevalence
  of occupational respiratory diseases (occupational asthma, acute and
  chronic bronchitis, organic dust toxic syndrome) in factory farm workers
  can be as high as 30%. (Choiniere
  & Munroe, 1993)
• The odors that
  CAFOs emit are a complex mixture of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon
  dioxide, as well as volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (Heederik
  et al., 2007). These odors are worse than
  smells formerly associated with smaller livestock farms. (CDC,
  2010)

 

Conventional
Cropping

• Dust storms
  caused by bare soil increase airborne respiratory irritants and have led
  to deadly car accidents. (NBC
  News, 2023)
• The impact of
  wind erosion of soil on ambient air quality was highest in spring; the
  total PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ emissions were highest from cultivated land, followed by sandy
  land, grassland, forest land, and bare land. (Tian
  et al., 2021)
• The role of
  aggregate size distribution is critical in dust emission. Soil disturbance
  due to agricultural activity causes the disintegration of soil aggregates.
  This increases the fraction of aggregates large enough to cause saltation
  in the soil, and thus the PM₁₀ flux by the
  saltation process. (Katra, 2020)

 

Improvements
in Air Quality from Regenerative Practices

• The mean rate
  of soil erosion by wind with No-Till (NT) was 18.9% to 36.2% less than
  that with Conventional Tillage (CT). With increasing wind velocity, the
  rate of soil erosion by wind increased for both CT and NT but was faster
  with CT than NT. Soil wind erosion occurred with a wind velocity ≥14 m s⁻¹, and NT
  greatly decreased the rate of soil erosion when wind velocity exceeded 14
  m s⁻¹. (Yang et al., 2020)
• Sensitivity
  results indicate that deposition and emissions changes associated with
  reforestation in the Southeast US impact O₃ and PM_2.5 concentrations
  as much as, and in most cases more than, changes in meteorology.
  Conversion of forest to cropland in the Southeast, on the other hand,
  tends to increase O₃ and increase
  PM_2.5 year-round. (Trail
  et al., 2015)

 

Animal Performance

 

Loss of Animal
Performance from Regenerative Grazing

• Furthermore,
  the collaborative, adaptive rangeland management (CARM) herd (composed of
  different animals each year) gained significantly less weight than the
  traditional rangeland management (TRM) herds in each of the 5 yr of the
  experimental treatment, regardless of the precise pattern and rate of
  rotation used. Reduced weight gains will decrease profits for livestock
  producers, as these losses are further magnified by the greater
  infrastructure costs (fence and water development) of CARM, which may not
  be offset by labor savings (Windh
  et al. 2019). (Augustine
  et al. 2020)
• CARM
  consistently reduced cattle weight gains (Augustine
  et al. 2020) and diet quality (Plechaty,
  2018) across a wide range of precipitation conditions. At the same time,
  we found no effect of grazing treatment on total forage production. (Augustine
  et al. 2023)

 

Improved
Animal Performance from Regenerative Grazing

• Our AMP-grazed
  steers finished in 150 days shorter and 99 kg heavier than the
  continuously grazed steers in Lupo
  et al. (2013). This difference can be
  explained by improved forage quality and utilization in the AMP grazing
  system versus the more conventional continuous grazing system. (Stanley
  et al., 2018)

 

Animal Welfare

Improved
Animal Welfare from Regenerative Practices

• Compared to
  pasture-finished animals, we observed impairments in glucose metabolism,
  mitochondrial metabolism, bile acid metabolism, glycerophospholipid
  metabolism, and increased oxidative stress in pen-finished animals.
  Several of these metabolic pathways are interrelated and may result from
  reduced physical activity and/or higher grain-feeding. (Van Vliet et al.,
  2023)
• “We conclude
  that there is strong experimental support for replacing simple traditional
  agricultural pastures of reduced phytochemical diversity with multiple
  arrays of complementary forage species that enable ruminants to select a
  diet in benefit of their nutrition, health and welfare, whilst reducing
  the negative environmental impacts caused by livestock production
  systems.” (Distel
  et al., 2020)

 

Arthropods
& Insects

Impact of Insecticides

• Pests were
  10-fold more abundant in insecticide-treated corn fields than on
  insecticide-free regenerative farms, indicating that farmers who
  proactively design pest-resilient food systems outperform farmers that
  react to pests chemically. (LaCanne
  & Lundgren, 2018)
• Soybean aphids,
  thrips, and grasshopper populations were unaffected by the insecticidal
  seed treatments in the field. The laboratory trial revealed that all
  bioactivity of the seed treatments against soybean aphids was gone within
  46 days after planting, prior to aphid populations damaging the crop. Bean
  leaf beetles, a sporadic pest in our area, were reduced by the seed
  treatments. Natural enemy communities were significantly reduced by
  thiamethoxam seed treatments relative to the untreated control, particularly
  populations of Nabis americoferus (Hemiptera: Nabidae). Chrysoperla
  (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) adults were reduced in the imidacloprid- treated
  plots. (Seagraves
  & Lundgren, 2012)
• RNAi-based
  insecticides likely affect non-target hosts, as well as off-target gene
  silencing. (Lundgen
  & Duan, 2013)
• Foliar-dwelling
  predator populations were substantially higher in the cover crop treatment
  than in the chemical treatments in all years of study; population declines
  in the latter treatments were strongly associated with insecticide
  applications targeting soybean aphids. Foliar predator populations did not
  rebound within the growing season after insecticides were applied. Soil
  predator populations were largely unaffected by treatment (except in 2006,
  when they were more abundant in the cover crop treatment than in the
  chemical treatments). (Lundgren
  et al. 2013)
• Across site
  years, foliar herbivores and key pests of sunflowers were unaffected by
  the seed treatment. Likewise, subterranean herbivores were unaffected.
  Thiamethoxam was measurable in leaf tissue through the R1 plant stage,
  while its metabolite clothianidin was detected throughout flowering (R6).
  No difference in sunflower yield was observed between treatments across
  site years. This research suggests that neonicotinoid seed treatments in
  sunflowers do not always provide economic benefits to farmers in the form
  of pest reductions or yield improvements. (Bredeson
  & Lundgren, 2015)
• Seed-treated
  fields of sunflower had significantly fewer above-ground natural enemies
  and pollinators than untreated fields, while subterranean predators were
  unaffected. (Bredeson
  & Lundgren, 2018)
• Our results
  show that increased species diversity, community evenness, and linkage
  strength and network centrality within a biological network all correlate
  with significantly reduced pest populations. This supports the assertion
  that reduced biological complexity on farms is associated with increased
  pest populations and provides a further justification for diversification
  of agroecosystems to improve the profitability, safety, and sustainability
  of food production systems. (Lundgren
  & Fausti, 2015)
• Although
  preliminary, this study clearly shows that monarch larvae are exposed to
  clothianidin in the field at potentially harmful doses of the toxin. (Pecenka
  & Lundgren, 2015)
• The commercial
  formulation of 2,4-D was highly lethal to lady beetle larvae; the LC 90 of
  this herbicide was 13 % of the label rate. In this case, the ‘‘inactive’’
  ingredients were a key driver of the toxicity. Dicamba active ingredient
  significantly increased lady beetle mortality and reduced their body
  weight. The commercial formulations of both herbicides reduced the
  proportion of males in the lady beetle population. (Freydier
  & Lundgren, 2016)
• Increasing
  concentrations of clothianidin in bee bread were correlated with decreased
  glycogen, lipid, and protein in workers. This study shows that small,
  isolated areas set aside for conservation do not provide spatial or
  temporal relief from neonicotinoid exposures in agricultural regions where
  their use is largely prophylactic. (Morgen
  & Lundgren, 2016)
• In this paper,
  we identify how changing cropping patterns in South Dakota have affected
  the extensive usage of insecticides, an aspect often overlooked by
  producers and policy makers. Results indicate that increased corn
  production has contributed to an increase in the share of cropland acres
  treated with insecticides at the county level in eastern South Dakota. (Fausti
  et al., 2018)
• Neonicotinoids
  entering interseeded cover crops from adjacent treated plants is a newly
  discovered route of exposure and potential hazard for non-target
  beneficial invertebrates. (Bredeson
  & Lundgren, 2019)
• Rates of
  parasitized diamondback moth were consistently lower in the treated
  fields. Negative effects of using insecticides against diamondback moth
  were found for the density of parasitoids and generalist predatory wasps,
  and tended to affect spiders negatively. The observed increased leaf
  damages in insecticide-treated fields may be a combined consequence of
  insecticide resistance in the pest, and of lower predation and
  parasitization rates from naturally occurring predators that are
  suppressed by the insecticide applications. (Bommarco
  et al., 2011)

Dung Beetles

• Although dung
  beetles only represented 1.5–3% of total arthropod abundance, they were
  significantly correlated to more abundant and complex total arthropod
  communities. A diverse community contributes to dung degradation in
  rangelands, and their early colonization is key to maximizing this
  ecosystem service. (Pecenka
  & Lundgren, 2018)
• Rangelands
  managed with more regenerative practices (frequent rotation at high
  stocking densities and lack of ivermectin applications) had greater
  species richness, diversity, predator species abundance, and dung beetle
  abundance than more conventionally managed rangelands. Ivermectin quantity
  in cattle pats was negatively correlated with dung beetle abundance and
  diversity. (Pecenka
  & Lundgren, 2019)

 

General
Benefits of Regenerative Agriculture on Arthropods/Insects

• Invertebrate
  richness and diversity, and earthworm abundance and biomass were
  significantly greater in regenerative almond orchards compared to
  conventional almond orchards. Pest populations were similar in the two
  systems. (Fenster
  et al., 2021)
• Invertebrate biomass, diversity,
  and abundance in the soil, on the soil surface, and in the vegetation were
  positively affected by regenerative practices in all three study systems
  (cornfields of the Upper Midwest, almond orchards of California, and rangeland
  systems of the Northern Plains) (Fenster et al.,
  2021)

Pest
Management

• This research
  suggests that it is not the number or abundance of species within a
  community, but rather the balance of species within these communities that
  contributes to pest suppression in maize fields. This confirms the
  importance of community evenness in pest suppression (Crowder et al.,
  2010) and suggests that species diversity of the entire community [not
  just higher trophic levels (Letourneau
  et al, 2009)] may contribute to pest
  suppression within realistic arthropod communities. (Lundgren
  & Fausti, 2015) 
• Herbivores were
  the most abundant pasture functional guild found in the foliar community,
  and predators were most abundant in the soil and dung communities.
  Arthropod pests constituted a small portion of the pasture arthropod
  communities, with 1.01%, 0.34%, and 0.46% pests found in the foliar, soil,
  and dung communities, respectively. (Schmid,
  Welch & Lundgren, 2021)
• Soybean cyst
  nematodes are significantly reduced by annual ryegrass and cereal rye
  cover crops. (Hoorman &
  Sundermeier, 2017)
• The importance
  of the association of biodiversity and ecological network structure with
  low pest populations provides goals that can be targeted with sustainable
  cropping systems that require minimal inputs for pest management. Our
  research suggests that agronomic practices that promote high levels of
  arthropod diversity fundamentally require fewer agronomic inputs. For
  example, reducing tillage (Lehman et al., 2015, Kladivko,
  2001), increasing vegetation diversity on farms [for example,
  lengthening crop rotations, including cover crops in rotations,
  intercropping, managing field margins (Letourneau,
  2011)], and developing minimal-till organic agriculture (Bengtsson
  et al., 2005) should help increase
  biodiversity. (Lundgren
  & Fausti, 2015)
• During the
  period of 2006-2016, mineral N fertilizer use was 86% and 91% lower, and
  herbicide use was 96% and 97% lower in the 3-year and 4-year systems,
  respectively, than in the 2-year system. (Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)

• Incidence and
  severity of sudden death syndrome, a key disease affecting soybean in the
  Corn Belt, have been markedly lower in the longer rotations than in the
  2-year rotation. (Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)

• We conclude
  that low-intensity cropping systems are most favorable to the abundance
  and function of beneficial ground-dwelling arthropod communities
  (insectivores and granivores) during the transition process. (Lundgren
  et al., 2006)
• While plant
  diversity did not affect the abundance and richness of the carabid
  community, the turnover to a more native grassland community was
  accelerated by plant diversity in the first years after the land use
  change. In contrast, in later years plant diversity stabilized the
  community assemblage. Our study shows that high plant diversity can
  contribute to a faster transition of insect populations towards naturally
  occurring community assemblages and at later stages to more stabilized
  assemblages. (Lange
  et al., 2023)
• This tendency
  could be clearly demonstrated amongst the carabids, spiders, butterflies,
  bumblebees, millipedes and harvestmen, with margins often containing
  double or more the number of invertebrates of similar areas cropped to the
  edge. (Meek
  et al., 2002
• In terms of
  pest management, our results indicate that small-scale plant
  diversification (via the planting of cover crops or intercrops and reduced
  weed management) is likely to increase the control of specialist
  herbivores by generalist predators.) (Dassou
  & Tixier, 2016)
• Organic
  fertilisation enhanced local emergence of predators increasing top-down
  pest suppression. In contrast, local predator communities were unable to
  suppress aphid populations in inorganic and no fertilisation treatments. (Aguilera
  et al., 2021)
• In California,
  tomato fields adjacent to semimanaged, nonnative weeds had fewer
  parasitoid wasps, fewer lady beetles and more pests than fields adjacent
  to hedgerows constructed from at least five native perennial plants in
  strips of varying size [7 m wide and up to 550 m long (93; see
  Supplemental Figure 1)]. The abundance and diversity of native bees were
  also geater in hedgerows than in control sites (92), and this difference
  persisted up to 100 m into adjacent tomato fields (93). Hedgerows also
  increased bird diversity and abundance (51), with increased community
  diversity as the perennial plants matured, 10 years post-establishment
  (101). (Tooker
  et al., 2020)

 

Biodiversity

Food System Biodiversity

• Although more than 20 000 species
  of edible plants are available
  across the globe, as of today only fifteen species cater for 90% of the
  food requirement of the world’s population. Interestingly, just three
  crops namely rice, wheat and maize provide 60% of the world population’s
  energy intake. (http://www.fao.org/3/u8480e/u8480e07.htm). (Sreenivaulu
  & Fernie, 2022)

Rates of Biodiversity
Loss

• Biodiversity
  loss is accelerating around the world. The global rate of species
  extinction today is orders of magnitude higher than the average rate over
  the past 10 million years. The global food system is the primary driver of this trend. (Benton
  et al., 2021)
• Reports of
  declining soil biodiversity under intensive agriculture and the
  simplification of soil food webs (de
  Vries et al., 2013; Tsiafouli
  et al., 2014).
• 3 million acres of cropland—a
  less-suitable habitat for grassland birds—were created during 2008–2012,
  77% of which were converted from grassland and 8% from shrubland (Lark
  et al., 2015). Additionally, grassland and
  aridland birds face other ongoing threats including agricultural
  intensification and pesticides (Stanton
  et al., 2018).

Loss of Biodiversity from
Fertilizer Use

• We know from a
  large ecological literature that the fertilization of natural ecosystems,
  perhaps first noted in the eutrophication of lakes, is likely to result in
  a loss of species diversity…Any addition of a resource to [a natural
  community where that resource is  scarce] will lead to the dominance
  of the species that can use that resource most efficiently. Rather than
  having a net positive effect, inadvertent fertilization alters ecosystem
  composition and diminishes ecosystem function. (Soclow,
  1999)
• Fertilization disproportionally
  promotes the growth of taller plants with more canopy cover and better
  access to light, at the expense of shorter plants and seedlings in the
  understory, and this leads to reduced diversity. (Eskelinen
  et al., 2022)
• Fertilization with urea did not
  significantly alter the structure of soil microbial communities compared
  to the control but reduced network complexity and altered hub taxa. (Heisey
  et al., 2022)

Loss of Biodiversity from
Land Use Change

• Herbivore
  exclusion decreased pasture species richness by 12.5% and Shannon
  diversity by 11.7%, due to limited light reaching the soil surface. (Eskelinen
  et al., 2022)

• Research in the
  UK also showed species richness levels (as a measure of ɑ-diversity) of
  soil eukaryotes, soil fauna and vascular plants were consistently reduced
  as a result of grazing removal. The phylotype richness of fungi decreased
  by 19% in the grazing removal treatment and the phylotype richness of
  protists decreased by 17%. (Schrama
  et al., 2021)

• Our results
  suggest that such a ‘rewilding’ approach to nature conservation might not
  lead to an associated increase in the diversity of belowground organisms.
  (Schrama
  et al., 2021)

• As farms get larger, crop
  diversity declines and post-harvest loss increases. (Ricciardi
  et al., 2018) 

Loss of Biodiversity from
Water Pollution

• A reduction of about one-third of
  the global biodiversity is estimated to be a consequence of the
  degradation of freshwater ecosystems mainly due to pollution of water
  resources and aquatic ecosystems. (United
  Nations, nd)

Loss of Biodiversity from
Rotational Grazing

• Instead, when
  comparing the full set of adaptively managed, rotationally grazed pastures
  with a paired set of traditionally managed pastures over a 5-yr period, we
  found that adaptive rotation did not enhance, and even decreased, the
  abundance and productivity of perennial graminoids. (Augustine
  et al., 2020)

Increase in Biodiversity
from Regenerative Agriculture Principles

• The richness of
  C₃ grasses and forbs on burned and grazed watersheds was nearly double
  that on watersheds that were burned but not grazed. The richness of C₄ species was
  also higher on grazed, burned sites compared with the control. (Collins
  et al. 1998)
• Bison caused
  native plant species richness to increase compared to ungrazed sites
  during the nearly three-decade period, culminating in 103% higher species
  richness at the 10-m² plot scale and
  86% higher richness at the larger catchment scale (each catchment was
  >18 ha and sampled with 20 noncontiguous plots). At the two respective
  scales, cattle caused modest 41% and 30% increases in native plant species
  richness compared to ungrazed sites. (Ratajczak
  et al., 2022)
• Warming by
  ~1.5 °C in a Finland tundra meadow increased total plant species richness
  in the presence of mammalian herbivores by 2.4 species (13%) on average,
  but decreased it by 2.3 species (12%) in the absence of herbivores. We
  show that herbivores can maintain plant diversity in warming tundra by
  alleviating light limitation and preventing extinctions of species
  characterized by short stature and slow growth. (Kaarlejärvi et al.
  2017)
• Total microbial
  biomass was, on average, 1.3 and 2.0 times higher in soils from
  multi-paddock pastures than in soils from conventionally managed pastures
  and hayfields, respectively. Relative fungal biomass in MP soils was 1.4
  times higher than in CM soils and 1.7 times higher than in hayfield soils.
  (Kleppel,
  2019)
• The restored
  prairie had the highest F:B (13.5) and high total C (49.9 g C kg⁻¹ soil);
  neighboring soil farmed to corn (cropped ~100 years) had an F:B of 0.85
  and total C of 36.0 g C kg⁻¹ soil. (Bailey
  et al. 2002)
• Holistic
  Resource Management pastures had 1.5 times higher average abundances of
  obligate grassland birds than minimally rotated pastures and 4.5 times
  more obligate grassland birds than continuously grazed pastures. (Cassidy
  & Kleppel, 2017)
• Although
  collaborative, adaptive rangeland management (CARM) did not enhance C₃ perennial
  graminoid production or density, it is important to note that CARM altered
  vegetation structure in a manner that significantly affected densities of
  certain grassland bird species (Davis
  et al. 2020), which highlights the
  complexity of managing for multiple objectives. (Augustine
  et al., 2020)
• High stocking
  densities, frequent rotational grazing and elimination of prophylactic
  ivermectin use resulted in greater insect species richness, diversity,
  predator species abundance, and dung beetle abundance than more
  conventionally managed rangelands. (Pecenka
  & Lundgren, 2019)
• This analysis
  suggested the reference natural areas (RNAs) were by far more diverse with
  more species sharing the Importance Value. It also suggests CG ranches
  were the least diverse and that AMP ranches were transitioning
  (“diverging”) toward a higher dominance diversity condition, away from the
  CG plant community. (Apfelbaum
  et al., 2022)
• Our study shows
  that high plant diversity can contribute to a faster transition of insect
  populations towards naturally occurring community assemblages and at later
  stages to more stabilized assemblages. (Lange
  et al., 2023)
• Our review
  revealed that biodiversity, nitrogen cycling, and carbon storage in
  regenerative grazing systems more closely resemble wild grazing ecosystems
  than do conventional grazing systems. (Kleppel
  & Frank, 2022)
• On average, the
  AMP ranch had 1.5 more species per grid than the CG ranch, with the
  maximum richness of six, as compared to four in the CG ranch. (Meaning
  that AMP encourages diversity and mixing of species in close proximity,
  while CG grazing encourages big clumps of homogenous species.) (Wang
  et al., 2021)

• Plant diversity
  significantly increased shoot biomass, root biomass, the amount of root
  exudates, bacterial biomass, and fungal biomass. The amount of root
  exudates increased significantly with increasing plant diversity, while
  exudate diversity did not. (Eisenhauer et al.,
  2017)
• There was more
  plant biomass, species diversity, and percent cover in regenerative almond
  orchards compared to conventional almond orchards. (Fenster
  et al., 2021)
• We found that
  plant species diversity was about 70% greater in AM fungal inoculated
  plots, although some fungal species increased diversity up to 300% more
  than others by the end of the second growing season. Inoculation also
  significantly improved the diversity of late successional species. (Koziol
  & Bever, 2016)

• We found
  evidence that inoculation with AM fungi via nurse plant plugs can spread
  into the nearby plant community, as seedling recruitment was greater in
  inoculated plots by the end of the second growing season, indicating that
  the inoculation of nurse plants can increase nearby late successional
  seed recruitment extending beyond the growing season during which the
  plants were inoculated. (Koziol
  & Bever, 2016) 

• Mature prairie
  plants outcompete weedy plants and do not require much maintenance.
  Prairie plants do not move into the crop fields, but could become valuable
  adjacent habitat for pollinators and other beneficial insects. Prairie
  strips could become a component of an integrated pest management approach.
  (Iowa
  State University, 2017)
• We show that silvopastoral
  systems (SPS) harbor higher levels of biodiversity (i.e., richness,
  abundance, and diversity) and stability than treeless pastures, and
  perform comparably to nearby forests. However, variations exist across
  regions and taxa, with the strongest positive responses in tropical dry
  regions and for low-mobility taxa like invertebrates and plants. Mammals,
  birds, and soil microorganisms, on the other hand, showed no significant
  biodiversity differences between treeless pastures and SPS. (Perez-Alvarez
  et al., 2023)
• Compost altered the structure of
  both the fungal and prokaryotic microbial communities, introduced new
  microorganisms that persisted in the resident soil system, and altered
  soil microbial correlation network structure and hub taxa. This study
  highlights the significant impacts that high-quality organic matter
  fertilization can exert on agricultural soil microbiomes and adds to the
  growing body of knowledge on using organic fertilizers as a way to steer
  the soil microbiome toward a healthier soil. (Heisey
  et al., 2022)
• Our results show, for the first
  time in tropical conditions that agricultural systems with low-intensity
  farming practices and forested landscape allow the preservation of a
  significantly higher diversity of bees than agricultural systems with
  high-intensity farming practices and highly deforested landscape. (Vides-Borrell
  et al., 2019)
• We found that greater numbers of
  plant species led to greater temporal stability of ecosystem annual
  aboveground plant production. In particular, the decadal temporal
  stability of the ecosystem, whether measured with intervals of two, five
  or ten years, was significantly greater at higher plant diversity and
  tended to increase as plots matured. (Tilman et al., 2006)
• Meta-analysis: Cover cropping
  increased soil microbial abundance, activity, and diversity. (Kim
  et al., 2020)

Biological Hotspots

• We found a significant
  differentiation in community composition related to the intensity of
  tillage. Richness was weakly correlated to tillage, and more influenced by
  whether the sample was taken in the center or the edge of the field. (Froslev
  et al., 2021)

Economics

Economic Consequences of
Conventional Agriculture

• Nitrogen
  loading in the Gulf that is attributable to agricultural losses upstream
  caused between $552 million and $2.4 billion (2018 dollars) in damage to
  Gulf fisheries and marine habitat annually from 1980 to 2017. Based on the
  scenarios described above, we estimate that between $34.4 million and $990
  million (2018 dollars) in damage costs to Gulf fisheries and marine
  habitat could have been averted every year from 1980 to 2017 through
  shifts in agricultural practices. (UCS,
  2020)

• Damage cost
  estimates did not take into account the costs of impaired groundwater,
  surface water, and drinking water harm to waterways and the climate as it
  makes its way to the Gulf of Mexico. (UCS,
  2020)

• On average the
  equivalent of 3,100 standard-sized shipping containers per year of excess
  nitrogen has washed off Midwest cropland into the Mississippi and
  Atchafalaya rivers, and ultimately into the Gulf of Mexico. This nitrogen
  has contributed up to $2.4 billion in damages to ecosystem services
  generated by fisheries and marine habitat every year since 1980. (UCS,
  2020)
• Estimates of potential
  damages from N leakage (based on median estimates) ranged from $1.94 to
  $2255 ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ across watersheds, with a median of $252 ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹.
  Eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems and respiratory effects of
  atmospheric N pollution were important across HUC8s (8-digit US Geologic
  Survey Hydrologic Unit Codes). Nearly 75% of the damage costs were
  associated with agricultural N leakage and effects on aquatic systems. (Sobota
  et al., 2015)
• From the USDA
  soil portal, the cost of soil erosion is estimated at $44.39 billion in
  the United States. This value includes lost productivity, along with
  sedimentation and eutrophication of water reservoirs. Lost farm income is
  estimated at $100 million per year as a result of soil erosion in the U.S.
  (Halopka,
  2017)
• The average
  cost per event by disaster types are the following (National
  Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, 2022): 

• Tropical
  cyclones have the highest average cost per event of $20.3 billion. 

• Drought/heat
  waves have an average cost of $10.0 billion per event.

• Wildfires have
  an average cost of $6.2 billion per event.

• Flooding
  events have an average cost of $4.7 billion per event. 

• In 2009, the
  Institute of Medicine found that some 30% of health care costs were wasted
  (Berwick
  & Hackbarth, 2012 , Cutler,
  2018), 50% of which was caused by unnecessary or insufficient care
  mainly related to the way chronic care is managed. (Holman,
  2020)
• A recent Milken
  Institute analysis determined that treatment of the seven most common
  chronic diseases coupled with productivity losses will cost the U.S.
  economy more than $1 trillion dollars annually. (Waters
  & Graf, 2018)
• Currently, some
  50% of the US population has a chronic disease, creating an epidemic, and
  86% of health care costs are attributable to chronic disease. (Holman,
  2020)
• Dependence on
  chemical weed control fuels a global herbicide industry that accounts for
  40% of pesticide use worldwide (Trognitz
  et al., 2017). In the U.S. alone, the
  expenditure on herbicides exceeds $5 billion each year and accounts for
  57% of the total pesticide use nationally (Atwood
  & Paisley-Jones, 2017)

• Glyphosate
  applications in the U.S. exceed 1 billion kg/yr and now account for 67%
  of quantities used globally (Benbrook, 2016). As a
  result, severe outbreaks of glyphosate-resistant or tolerant weed
  populations have been reported in 54 plant species (Heap,
  2023), resulting in an expected annual cost of over $10
  billion in increased chemical costs (Varah
  et al, 2016)

• The loss of A-horizon soil has
  removed 1.4 ± 0.5 Pg of carbon from hillslopes, reducing crop yields in
  the study area by ∼6% and resulting in $2.8 ± $0.9
  billion in annual economic losses. (Thaler
  et al., 2021)

Input Price Fluctuation of
Conventional Agriculture

• Historical
  price fluctuations for phosphorus, for example, include price spikes up to
  800% in 2008. (Cordell
  et al., 2015)
• Over long
  periods of time, farm input prices are significantly correlated with
  general inflation.  However, farm input prices are by no means
  perfectly correlated with general inflation.  Each input has its own
  supply and demand fundamentals.  Farm input price indices for
  machinery and labor were more correlated with general inflation than feed,
  seed, fertilizer, and fuels. (Langemeier,
  2022)

• Of the input prices examined,
  only seed and wages had a rate of change during the last 12 months (April
  2021-April 2022) that was lower than the rate of change for general
  inflation.  Agricultural production items, a general index for farm
  input prices, increased 15.6 percent or more than double the general
  inflation rate.  Input prices changes for energy and fertilizer
  products were particularly large.  During the last 12 months, diesel
  prices increased 47 percent.  Increases in fertilizer prices ranged
  from 51 percent for diammonium phosphate to 179 percent of anhydrous
  ammonia. (Langemeier,
  2022)

• Scott Stiles, extension economist
  for the Division of Agriculture in Arkansas, said rising fertilizer prices
  have a clear correlation to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. “Over the past
  two weeks (March 11, 2022) the average price for urea at the U.S. Gulf has
  gone up 26 percent, or $136 a ton,” he said. Diammonium phosphate, or DAP,
  “has increased 32 percent or $213 per ton since Feb. 1. Potash has
  increased four consecutive weeks.” (McGeeney,
  2022)

Monopoly & Monopsony in
Conventional Agriculture

From
“CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
Consolidation and Concentration in the U.S. Dairy Industry” (USDA,
2010)

• Half of all U.S. cropland is on
  farms with at least 1,000 acres (over 1.5 square miles).   (MacDonald
  et al., 2013) 
• The vast majority of U.S. poultry
  and pork products comes from facilities that each produce over 200,000
  chickens or 5,000 pigs in a single year, while most egg-laying hens are
  confined in facilities that house over 100,000 birds at a time. (Johns
  Hopkins, 2014)
• Midsize and large-scale family
  farms account for 8 percent of U.S. farms but 60 percent of the value of
  production. In contrast, small family farms make up 90 percent of the U.S.
  farm count but produce a more modest 26-percent share of farm output. (Hoppe,
  2014)
• Percentage of sales earned by the
  four largest companies in their respective industries in 2011 (Milli
  & Kim, 2013):

• Cattle – 82%

• Hog – 63%

• Broilers – 53%

• In the supermarket industry, four
  companies earn at least 42 percent of the sales. (James
  et al., 2013)
• Increased dairy cow output and
  advances in dairy farm technology and management have led to a sharp
  reduction in the number of dairy farms. Annual losses averaged 96,000
  operations in the late 1960s and 37,000 in the 1970s. In recent years
  (2010), the annual drop in dairy farm operations has slowed to about 2,000
  to 5,000 farms per year. (USDA,
  2010)
• What does market concentration
  mean for farmers and consumers? In some cases, market concentration can
  lower prices for consumers and increase sales. On the other hand, with
  fewer competitors in a concentrated market, dominant companies may gain
  greater power to influence prices in their favor. They may also dictate
  how foods are produced, leaving farmers with little choice over how to
  grow crops or raise animals. Many highly concentrated corporations also
  have a strong presence in government agencies, where they can influence
  policies in their favor. (Johns
  Hopkins, 2014)

Profitability of
Conventional Agriculture

• 89 percent of
  U.S. farms are small, with gross cash farm income (GCFI) less than
  $350,000; the households operating these farms typically rely on off-farm
  sources for the majority of their household income. (USDA-ERS,
  2023)
• Maize production in the United
  States has been profitable (without government payments) only ∼7 of the last 26 yr (USDA
  Economic Research Service, 2018), 5 of these being the biofuel
  boom years of 2008 through 2012, resulting in billions of dollars in
  government payments to farmers (Imhoff
  & Badaracco, 2019).

Profitability of
Regenerative Agriculture

• Decades of scientific evidence
  suggests that rotational grazing does not convey ecological or production
  advantages over season-long continuous grazing (livestock graze the same
  pasture from the start to the end of the grazing season) (Briske
  et al. 2008, Briske
  et al. 2011) (Windh
  et al. 2019)

Profitability of
Regenerative Agriculture

• AMP managed
  systems provided sufficient forage biomass to support grazer stocking
  densities 2.38 times higher than conventional grazing systems, while also
  promoting development of soil food web structure, diversity and
  functionality and collectively making AMP systems more ecologically
  resilient, sustainable and profitable. (Johnson et al.,
  2022)
• Regenerative
  fields had 29% lower grain production but 78% higher profits over
  traditional corn production systems. Profit was positively correlated with
  the particulate organic matter of the soil, not yield. (LaCanne
  & Lundgren, 2018)
• Even without
  the premiums paid for organic crops, the organic manure system is the most
  profitable system over conventional and organic legume. (Rodale
  Institute Farming Systems Trial)
• Ranches in
  Western Canada using AMP management began grazing earlier in the year,
  with a mean initiation date of grazing of April 25, as compared with May
  17 for n-AMP operations. Notably, four AMP operations reported
  “year-round” grazing. Not surprisingly, the total length of grazing was
  54% longer (at nearly 7 mo) on ranches using AMP grazing, even after the
  adjustment for dormant season grazing. (Bork
  et al. 2021)

• For the twenty
  wheat production seasons from 1980 to 1999, grain-only generated more net
  returns in four seasons and dual-purpose (Cool season grazed in addition
  to grain harvest) generated more net returns in 16 seasons. (Eppelin
  et al., 2001)
• Simulations
  show that shorter periods of grazing increase both ecological
  condition (EC) and profitability while increasing recovery periods increases both EC and profitability initially but
  profitability decreases if recovery periods are too long. Both EC and
  profitability are positively related to number of paddocks used. (Teague et al., 2015)
• MP grazing
  excels in that it can sustain much higher stocking density without a
  negative influence on the biomass and composition of grass. Consequently,
  MP grazing practice offers an alternative to maintaining or improving
  rangeland condition, at higher stocking rates than would be sustainable
  under continuous grazing. (Wang,
  Teague & Park, 2016)
• Results show
  that compared to continuous grazing, MP grazing on large commercial
  ranches greatly increases the optimal 30-year net present value (NPV) by
  sustaining much higher stocking rates. (Wang
  et al., 2018)
• Profit was
  twice as high in the regenerative almond orchards relative to their
  conventional counterparts. (Fenster
  et al., 2021)
• Differences in
  returns between a rye cover crop prior to cotton that was grazed and
  non-grazed (roller-crimped) ranged from $–26 to $355 and averaged $81 ha⁻¹ when based on
  market year prices. The difference in average return increased to $110 ha⁻¹ when based on
  2012 market year prices. (Schomberg
  et al., 2014)
• Management
  practices hypothesized to enhance yield and environmental performance were
  adopted by 20.9 million farmers in China in 452 counties from
  2005-2015.The increased grain output and decreased nitrogen fertilizer use
  were equivalent to US$12.2 billion. (Cui et al., 2018)
• During
  2008-2016, increases in rotation length led to greater labor requirements
  and decreased gross revenue. However, production costs also dropped
  substantially as cropping system diversity increased. Consequently, net
  returns to land and management did not differ among systems (p=0.56,
  mean=$845 per hectare per year, $342 per acre year), though profitability
  tended to rise as rotation length increased. (Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)
• Long-term field
  experiments in South Africa demonstrate that, with crop rotation, better
  yields enable two-thirds of the present total wheat production to be grown
  with only half the cropped area under the main crop, and with better gross
  margins—dramatically better with integrated cropping and livestock. (Strauss,
  2021)

 

Rural Revitalization

• Presently,
  prices for grass-fed beef are 47% greater by weight than conventional beef
  (USDA,
  2018) across all cuts. If demand is not perfectly
  inelastic (the price does not remain constant despite a change in supply),
  a reduction in the amount of beef produced in the US is likely to increase
  the price of beef domestically. Additionally, imports of grass-fed beef
  could be reduced, shifting demand for this premium product back to US
  farmers, thus making exclusively grass-fed cattle management more
  profitable. This outcome could benefit declining rural economies in the
  US. (Hayek
  & Garrett, 2018).
• White Oak Pastures’ 155+
  employees make a minimum of twice the county average and spend their
  paycheck eating, shopping, and living in the Bluffton community. They have
  also invested in their community, built cabins for local tourism, opened
  an on-farm restaurant, and re-opened a General Store in downtown Bluffton
  (which is the only place within a 10-mile radius for locals to buy fresh
  food, a coca-cola, or a roll of toilet paper). (White
  Oak Pastures)

Erosion

Current Rates of Erosion

• United States– an average
  rate of 4-4.5 ton/acre/yr OR 0.02-0.03 in./yr across the nation. (Shojaeezadeh
  et al., 2022)(National
  Resources Inventory, 2017)

• Our assessment
  shows that globally, GHG emissions from domestic ruminants represent
  11.6% (1.58 Gt C y^–1) of total
  anthropogenic emissions, while cropping and soil-associated emissions
  contribute 13.7% (1.86 Gt C y^–1). The primary
  source is soil erosion (1 Gt C y^–1), which in
  the United States alone is estimated at 1.72 Gt of soil y^–1. (Teague
  et al., 2016)

• In the United
  States, annual soil mass losses from crop and grazing land (1.72 Gt soil
  y^–1; Lal 2003) is three times
  greater than the combined yields from corn (Zea mays L.; 0.36 Gt y^–1), soybeans
  (Glycine max; 0.045 Gt y^–1) and hay
  (0.146 Gt y^–1; USDA 2012). (Teague
  et al., 2016)

• We predict the
  A-horizon has been completely removed from 35 ± 11% of the cultivated
  area of the Corn Belt. (Thaler
  et al., 2021)

• WI and MN
  research found that 10% of the runoff events caused 85% of the total soil
  loss, with 69% of soil lost in May and June. (Discovery
  Farms, 2016)

• The frequency
  of large dust storms in the southwestern United States has increased 240%
  from 1990-2011. (Tong
  et al., 2017)
• Worldwide– Somewhere in
  the range of 2.2 ton/acre/yr. – 11.4 ton/acre/yr. OR 0.015 – 0.074
  in./year loss. (Borrelli
  et al., 2017) (Borrelli
  et al., 2021)

·       
“Detailed information on soil erosion, through both
modelling and measurement, is lacking for large parts of the world. This
condition is particularly true for regions most susceptible to high levels of
soil erosion.” (Borrelli
et al., 2021)

Improvements in Erosion
from Regenerative Principles

• Autumn sowing
  of rye following corn silage harvest on a sandy loam soil reduced mean
  annual soil loss from 31 Mg ha^–1 y^–1, where soil
  was ploughed but left bare over winter, to 2.5 Mg ha^–1 y^–1 when rye was
  planted. (Kort
  et al., 1998)
• The average
  annual surface runoff, as well as losses of sediment, Total Nitrogen and
  Total Phosphorus from the study ranches varied from 117.4 mm, 8.14 ton ha^-1, 4.68 kg ha^-1 and 1.04 kg ha^-1, respectively,
  at the Mitchell Ranch (HC grazing) to about 43.7mm, 1.36 ton ha^-1, 1.27 kg ha^-1 and 0.21 kg ha^-1, respectively,
  at the Pittman Ranch (MP grazing). (Park
  et al., 2017)
• Crop species
  with fibrous root system (e.g. ryegrass, rye and oats) show high potential
  to control soil erosion while cover crops with thick roots (e.g. white
  mustard and fodder radish) are less effective in preventing soil erosion.
  (Baets
  et al., 2011)
• Research shows that by converting
  10% of a crop-field to diverse, native perennial vegetation, farmers and
  landowners can reduce sediment movement off their field by 95 percent. (Iowa
  State, 2019)
• This study demonstrated that
  reduced tillage in organic farming decreased sediment delivery (0.73 t ha⁻¹ h⁻¹) compared to
  intensively tilled organic plots (1.87 t ha⁻¹ h⁻¹) by 61%. (Seitz
  et al., 2018)
• Soil erosion was 50% lower,
  fossil energy consumption was 60% lower in the more diverse systems than
  in the conventional system.(Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)
• Rainfall
  simulations were performed on packed columns (20 cm diam.; 56 cm length)
  that included triplicate combinations of cereal rye (Secale cereale
  L.), forage radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. longipinnatus),
  and bare soil and a heavy, light, and no freezing treatment. The two cover
  crops reduced runoff total suspended solids concentrations and nitrate
  leaching compared with a bare soil control, confirming many cover cropping
  benefits. (Muñoz-Ventura
  et al., 2022)
• Use of prairie
  strips also reduced total water runoff from catchments by 37%, resulting
  in retention of 20 times more soil and 4.3 times more phosphorus.  (Schulte
  et al., 2017)
• We show that
  just under a third of conventionally managed soils in the dataset exhibit
  lifespans (time it takes to erode 30cm) of <200 years, with 16% <100
  years. Conservation measures substantially extend lifespan estimates, and
  in many cases promote soil thickening, with 39% of soils under
  conservation measures exhibiting lifespans exceeding 10,000 years.” (Evans
  et al., 2020)

 

Fertilizer

Global Fertilizer Supply

• A simple
  calculation of phosphate rock reserve longevity using current reserve and production
  figures indicates that the world has over 300 years of reserves and over
  1,400 years of resources. It should again be emphasized that estimates for
  phosphate rock reserves are subject to change with updated information and
  discovery, and with changes in economics and technology. (Van
  Kauwenbergh, 2013)
• Today’s prices
  for chemical P fertilizer can already be 2–6 times more expensive for a
  farmer in Africa than in Europe due to higher transport and storage costs
  (Cordell
  et al., 2009), even though Africa itself has
  the highest geological P deposits in the world (according to today’s
  estimates 80% of the global geological P deposits are located in Morocco
  and the Western Sarah).
• Russia and
  Belarus account for 41% of the globally traded K and are the second and
  third largest producers. (Quinn,
  2022)
• “The world will
  never run out of phosphorus or potassium; there’s huge amounts out there
  in the oceans, and in fact that’s where the runoff from our phosphate rock
  and potash-based fertilizers go. But when those supplies run out, the
  process of recovering phosphate from agricultural waste, runoff, and
  sewage will be so expensive that many forms of agriculture that depend on
  cheap NPK fertilizers will suffer. Let’s not even get started on the step
  change in cost that mining it from the ocean would entail.” (Velson,
  2017)

• While many people may make the
  mistake of claiming that these resources will “run out” in the strict
  sense of being consumable, there is still a very valid point that many
  so-called alarmists make – that valid point being the price level that
  supports current practices. (Velson,
  2017)

Natural Fertility Cycles

• Free-living diazotrophs are
  estimated to account for at least one-third of the global total Biological
  Nitrogen Fixation (Davies-Barnard and Friedlingstein, 2020). (Hu
  et al., 2024)

Synthetic Fertilizer Use

• The average
  percentage of yield attributable to fertilizer generally ranged from about
  40 to 60% in the USA and England and tended to be much higher in the
  tropics. Recently calculated budgets for N, P, and K indicate that
  commercial fertilizer makes up the majority of nutrient inputs necessary
  to sustain current crop yields in the USA. The results of this
  investigation indicate that the commonly cited generalization that at
  least 30 to 50% of crop yield is attributable to commercial fertilizer
  nutrient inputs is a reasonable, if not conservative estimate. (Stewart
  et al., 2005)
• 1961 Fertilizer production: 9.37
  million ton K, 11.23 million ton P, 12.94 million ton N (Our
  World in Data, 2022 using data from FAO, 2023)
• 2020 Fertilizer production: 44.91
  million ton K, 44.87 million ton P, 123.15 million ton N (Our
  World in Data, 2022 using data from FAO, 2023)

Environmental Damage from
Fertilizers

• Phosphate strip
  mines are environment wreckers. They produce around 150 million tons of
  toxic spoil a year. Their massive draglines, huge slurry pipes, and
  mountainous spoil heaps dominate the landscape for tens of miles in key
  mining zones, whether in the North African desert or in Florida, a state
  that still provides three-quarters of American farmers’ phosphate needs. (Pearce,
  2011)
• For every ton
  of desirable phosphoric acid produced for fertilizer, more than five tons
  of phosphogypsum waste remains. (EPA,
  2023)

• Radioactive
  gypsum waste is piled into ponds, many of which risk breaking and leaching
  into aquifers used as drinking water. (Luscombe,
  2021)

• We find that
  the synthetic N fertiliser supply chain was responsible for estimated
  emissions of 1.13 GtCO₂e in 2018,
  representing 10.6% of agricultural emissions and 2.1% of global GHG
  emissions. (Menegat
  et al., 2022)
• Researchers
  from the University of Cambridge found that two thirds of emissions from
  fertilisers take place after they are spread on fields, with one third of
  emissions coming from production processes. (Gao
  & Serrenho, 2023)
• CAFOs, monocultures, pesticides,
  fungicides, herbicides, synthetic fertilizers, and tillage have degraded
  our soil and eliminated methanotrophs that digest methane. Furthermore,
  because synthetic nitrogen fertilizer production (through fracking)
  generates as much methane as CAFOs, crops grown with such fertilizers are
  arguably a more significant source of methane than CAFO beef. (Eskelinen
  et al., 2022) 

Inefficiency of Synthetic
Fertilizers

• The efficiency
  of N recovery by grain crops ranges from 35% to 75% with an average near
  50% (Smil,
  1999;Socolow,
  1999). For example, N recovery by maize, which has a grain N content of
  1.5%, is 39% for the first 100 kg (220 lb) of N fertilizer and only 13%
  for the second 100 kg (220 lb) (Socolow, 1999). (Vance,
  2001)
• Nitrogen-leaching
  losses from common grain-production systems typically range from 10% to
  30% of the total N input. (Meisinger &
  Delgado 2002)
• Estimates of
  potential damages from N leakage (based on median estimates) ranged from
  $1.94 to $2255 ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ across
  watersheds, with a median of $252 ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹.
  Eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems and respiratory effects of
  atmospheric N pollution were important across HUC8s (8-digit US Geologic
  Survey Hydrologic Unit Codes). Nearly 75% of the damage costs were
  associated with agricultural N leakage and effects on aquatic systems. (Sobota
  et al., 2015)
• Only 20 percent of the phosphorus
  in phosphate rock reaches the food consumed globally. Thirty to 40 percent
  is lost during mining and processing; 50 percent is wasted in the food
  chain between farm and fork; and only half of all manure is recycled back into
  farmland around the world. (Cho,
  2013)

Negative Impacts to Plant
Health From Fertilization

• Fertilization significantly
  increased plant growth, but at the same time made plants more susceptible
  to herbivory. (Van
  Hee et al., 2023)

Prevention
of Nutrient Loss

• As part of a
  corn-soybean rotation, oats (Avena sativa L.)  reduced nitrate
  concentrations and loads in subsurface drainage water by 26% whereas rye
  (Secale cereale L.) reduced 48% nitrate concentration. (Kaspar
  et al., 2012)
• Meta-analyses
  of research found that nitrate leaching was 40% lower in legume cover crop
  treatment than fallow systems and 70% lower in non-legume cover crop
  treatment than fallow system. (Tonitto
  et al., 2006)
• Research shows that by converting
  10% of a crop-field to diverse, native perennial vegetation, farmers and
  landowners can reduce total phosphorous and nitrogen lost through runoff
  by 90 and 85 percent, respectively. (Iowa
  State, 2019)

Increase in Soil
Nutrient Availability

• Multi-paddock
  grazing management increased soil nutrient availability (water-extractable
  C and N) (Khatri-Chhetri
  et al. 2022)
• The higher N
  stocks and lower ¹⁵N abundance of
  AMP soils also point to higher N retention in these systems. (Mosier
  et al., 2021)
• On average, CG
  farms had 29% greater NH⁴⁺
  concentrations, whereas AMP farms had 55% greater NO³⁻ concentration.
  (Mosier
  et al., 2022)
• Soil C stocks
  increased with species richness. More C was stored in the top layer (0–7.5
  cm) than in the second soil layer (7.5–15 cm). Soil N stocks also
  increased with species richness (F = 20.5; P < 0.001). Plant species
  richness had a strong positive effect on potential soil net N
  mineralization: soil N mineralization increased on average by 48% with
  each doubling of species richness. (Cong
  et al., 2014)
• Total soil
  carbon (TSC), soil organic matter (SOM), total soil nitrogen (TSN), total
  soil phosphorous, calcium, sulfur, and soil health test scores were all
  significantly greater in regenerative almond orchard soils compared to
  conventional almond orchards. (Fenster
  et al., 2021)

• Microbial
  cocultures can degrade lignocellulosic biomass more efficiently than the
  same species in monoculture, with degradation efficiencies found to
  increase as much as 18-fold in coculture relative to the constituent
  monocultures (29). (Wilpiszeski
  et al., 2019)

• An overall increase in C and N
  cycling under integrated crop-livestock (ICL) and natural ecosystem (NE)
  systems has been attributed to ingested pasture being converted into urine
  and manure. Under these systems, livestock catalyze nutrient cycling by
  breakdown of complex plant molecules, greater soil incorporation and
  decomposition of plant residues and soil organic matter, which can
  maintain or even improve soil fertility. (Bansal
  et al., 2022)
• Roots accelerate SOM
  decomposition compared to the root exclusion treatments, but also promote
  a different soil N economy with higher concentrations of organic soil N
  compared to inorganic soil N accompanied with the build-up of stable
  SOM-N. In contrast, root exclusion leads to an inorganic soil N economy
  (i.e., high level of inorganic N) with reduced stable SOM-N build-up. (Adamczyk
  et al., 2019)
• During the
  period of 2006-2016, mineral N fertilizer use was 86% and 91% lower, and
  herbicide use was 96% and 97% lower in the 3-year and 4-year systems,
  respectively, than in the 2-year system. (Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)
• Overall, this
  data (from a 35 year study) shows that extended rotations involving forage
  crops reduce N inputs, increase corn grain yields, and are more
  agronomically sustainable than current short-term rotations. (Stranger
  & Lauer, 2008)

Food
Supply

Food Supply

• Daily per
  capita caloric supply is measured in kilocalories per person per day. This
  indicates the caloric availability delivered to households but does not
  necessarily indicate the number of calories actually consumed. (FAO,
  2018)

• United States: 3,782
  kcal/person/day

• Global: 2,947
  kcal/person/day 

• Daily
  production of kcal per capita

• United States: 19,156
  kcal/person

• Global: 6,566
  kcal/person

• About 4.85
  million ha of the maize grown is used to fatten beef cattle in feedlots
  located mostly in the Great Plains region (USDA,
  2020). With slaughter rates of ∼21.9 million head yr^–1, the amount of
  grain-finished beef produced in the United States is ∼5.4 billion kg yr^–1 (Hayek
  & Garrett, 2018).
• The smallest
  two farm size classes (0–1 ha and 1–2 ha) are the greatest contributors to
  global food production compared to all other classes. Farms less than 2 ha
  produce 28–31% of total crop production and 30–34% of the global food
  supply (by calories) as extrapolated from the 55 countries and 154 crops
  in our dataset. Their contribution is slightly higher than their areal
  coverage of 24% of gross harvested area, suggesting small farmers have
  greater cropping intensity or higher yields than larger farms. (Ricciardi
  et al., 2018)

• Our findings are in line with
  Samberg and Herrero’s global estimates. This suggests that these three
  studies, using different methodologies, agree that the previous estimate
  of smallholders producing 70–80% of global food production needs to be
  revised. (Ricciardi
  et al., 2018)

Conventional
Agriculture/Green Revolution Increase in Food Supply

• The Haber-Bosch
  process will likely have enabled the lives of at least 3 to 3.5 billion
  people (roughly 40-48% by most estimates) today. (Erisman
  et al., 2008 , Smil,
  2004 , Stewart
  et al., 2005)
• Since 1950, global grain
  production per person has increased by 27 percent, while the amount of
  land dedicated to grain production per person has declined by 56 percent,
  according to the USDA. (Fitzsimmons,
  2016)

Inefficiency/Waste in the
Current Food System

• What do we
  actually know about the global magnitude of food loss and waste?
  Surprisingly little, as it turns out, but the sustainable development
  goals (SDG) monitoring framework is expected to contribute precisely to
  bridging this gap through enhanced efforts to collect data that enable
  estimation of total food loss and waste at the highest possible
  disaggregated levels. (FAO, 2019)
• Food loss is
  food, feed, seed and other. This is expressed as a share of all
  agricultural production, not just food.

• FAO’s Food Loss
  Index has led to the first global estimate released in 2019 that 13.8
  percent of food produced in 2016 was lost from the farm up to, but
  excluding, the retail stage. (FAO,
  2019)

• Food waste is
  consumer food waste, i.e. of final food products, not including non-food
  uses such as animal feed or seed.

• Around 931
  million tonnes of food waste were generated in 2019, 61 per cent of which
  came from households, 26 per cent from food service and 13 per cent from
  retail. This suggests that 17 per cent of total global food production
  may be wasted (11 per cent in households, 5 per cent in food service and
  2 per cent in retail). (United
  Nations, 2021)

• As farms get larger, crop
  diversity declines and post-harvest loss increases. (Ricciardi
  et al., 2018) 

Conventional Agriculture Not
Feeding the World

• If crop production currently used for animal feed and other uses,
  such as biofuels, were instead used for human food products, supplies would
  be increased by 70%, thus providing sufficient resources for an additional
  four billion people (West
  et al. 2014).
• We found
  smallholders (farms <2 ha) also allocate the largest percentage
  (55–59%) of their crop production to food compared to all other farm size
  classes. Generally, larger farms devote more of their production towards
  feed and processing. (Ricciardi
  et al., 2018)

• Farms between 200 and 500 ha
  have the largest allocation of their production to feed (16–29%) compared
  to farms < 2 ha who allocate 12–16% to feed. Farms > 1000 ha
  allocated 12–32% of their production to processing. (Ricciardi
  et al., 2018)

Regenerative Agriculture Not
Able to Feed the World

• Literature
  values of feedlot weight gain were 2.7 to 3.3 lbs day⁻¹ (USDA,
  2017). Our research fell within this range at to 2.98
  lbs per day. (Hayek
  & Garrett, 2018)

• ADG_grassfed = 1.4 lbs day⁻¹ is the
  average daily weight gain of cattle finishing on grass. (Hayek
  & Garrett, 2018)

• In order to
  produce the same quantity of beef as the present-day system, we find that
  a nationwide shift to exclusively grass-fed beef would require increasing
  the national cattle herd from 77 to 100 million cattle, an increase of
  30%. We also find that the current pastureland grass resource can support
  only 27% of the current beef supply (27 million cattle), an amount 30%
  smaller than prior estimates. If grass-fed systems include cropland-raised
  forage, a definition that conforms to typical grass-fed certifications,
  these supplemental feeds can support an additional 34 million cattle to
  produce up to 61% of the current beef supply. (Hayek
  & Garrett, 2018)

• Additionally,
  croplands currently utilized for grains fed to farmed animals could be
  substituted for alfalfa, a high-yielding forage crop. Including these
  ‘replaced’ forages, the US land base could support up to 71% of the
  current US beef production exclusively grasses and forages.

• When comparing
  required land between the multi-species pasture rotation (MSPR) at White
  Oak Pastures and conventional, commodity (COM) production systems, MSPR
  required 2.5 times more land when compared to COM. Thus, while our model
  indicates that MSPR can simultaneously produce protein while regenerating
  land, a considerably greater land area is needed when compared to COM. (Rowntree
  et al., 2020)

Regenerative Agriculture
Systems Feeding the World

• At typical
  forage production levels, 2.9 to 4.4 animals could be brought to finished
  weight on a hectare of former maize ground per year. So, the 4.85 million
  ha of current maize land used to supply grain-finishing feedlots could
  support 14 to 22 million finishing cattle per year. (Jackson,
  2022)

• With slaughter
  rates of ∼21.9 million head yr^–1, the amount
  of grain-finished beef produced in the United States is ∼5.4 billion kg yr^–1. (Hayek
  & Garrett, 2018)

• Crop yields
  were increased with the regenerative (non-conventional) agricultural
  methods, indicating that it is possible to increase the ergothioneine (a
  potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory amino acid that is produced in
  nature mainly by non-yeast fungi, cyanobacteria, and mycobacteria) content
  of the American food supply by using practices that can be profitable,
  more sustainable, and environmentally friendly. (Beelman et al.,
  2021)
• Management practices hypothesized
  to enhance yield and environmental performance were adopted by 20.9
  million farmers in China in 452 counties from 2005-2015. Average yields of
  maize, rice and wheat increased by 10.8-11.5%, while decreasing nitrogen
  application by 14.7%-18.1% and lowering GHG emissions. (Cui et al., 2018)

Fungi
(Mycorrhizal-specific)

Impact of Fungicides on MF

• The
  experimental tests demonstrated that spore germination and/or mycelial
  growth of G. mosseae are adversely affected by most of the substances
  tested and, in some cases, at much lower concentrations than those
  indicated for use (hormesis). (Giovannetti
  et al., 2006)
• These results
  indicate that the suppressive effects of seed-applied fungicides on AMF
  development depend on specific fungicide-AMF interactions.(Jin
  et al., 2013)
• Results showed
  that mycelial growth and interconnectedness of three different F. mosseae
  lineages were affected by the chemicals tested at concentrations lower
  than those indicated for agricultural use. (Barreto
  de Novais et al., 2019)
• AMF communities
  in grassland soils were much more efficient in acquiring ³³P and
  transferred 64% more ³³P to plants
  compared with AMF in cropland soils. Fungicide application best explained
  hyphal ³³P transfer in cropland soils. The use of fungicides and subsequent
  decline in AMF richness in croplands reduced ³³P uptake by
  43%. Our results suggest that land-use intensity and fungicide use are
  major deterrents to the functioning and natural nutrient uptake capacity
  of AMF in agroecosystems. (Edlinger
  et al., 2022)
• Thus,
  Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, arbuscular mycorrhizal
  fungi, and fungal PLFA biomarkers in soils without fungicide application
  were about 36%, 3%, 47%, and 82% higher than those soils treated with the highest
  doses of fungicides, respectively. (Verdenelli
  et al., 2023)
• Overall, based on the presented
  studies, the AMF response to pesticides is clearly substance- and
  dose-dependent. (Hage-Ahmed
  et al., 2018)

Impact of Tillage on MF

• Here we show
  that, despite this broad host range, the diversity of arbuscular
  mycorrhizal fungi is strikingly low in arable sites compared with a
  woodland. (Helgason et al.,
  1998)
•  

Impact of Glyphosate on MF

• In a greenhouse experiment, we
  found that glyphosate herbicides significantly decreased root
  mycorrhization, soil AMF spore biomass, vesicles and propagules. (Zaller, 2014)
• New Dr. James White glyphosate
  research

Soil Aggregation
Benefits of MF

• Overall, pathways creating large macroaggregates were about twice as
  active with AMF than without, while those degrading large macroaggregates
  were only half as active with AMF than without, emphasizing the
  stabilizing effect of AMF on large macroaggregates. (Morris
  et al., 2019)

• Large
  macroaggregates were more abundant in the presence of AMF while
  microaggregates and primary particles declined. Small macroaggregates
  made up about 15% of the total soil mass in both treatments, and were not
  affected by AMF presence. (Morris
  et al., 2019)

Fertility Benefits of MF

• Consequently,
  increased P availability could indirectly affect plant growth through the
  alleviation of N limitation. At our site, concentrations of soil inorganic
  N were nearly three times higher in plots fertilized with P than in
  control plots. Subsequent acetylene reduction analyses showed that soil N
  fixation rates were more than double for P fertilization plots. (Reed
  et al., 2007)
• AMF increased P_n (Carbon
  sequestration by plant) of four species ranging from 15.3% to 33.1% and
  carbon storage, averaged by 17.2% compared to controls. Soil organic
  carbon (OC), easily extractable glomalin-relation soil protein (EE-GRSP)
  and total glomalin-relation soil protein (T-GRSP) were significantly
  increased by AMF treatment. (Wang et al., 2016)

• The positive AMF function is
  through higher availability of nutrients and altered carbon allocation,
  thus promoting plant growth, especially increasing leaf area, chlorophyll
  content, and the Q₁₀ (the
  temperature sensitivity of R_s (Carbon
  release to the atmosphere) which is derived from substrate availability)
  value. (Wang et al., 2016) 

• The obtained results showed that
  AMF inoculation of onion and application of 120 kg P fertilizer ha⁻¹ significantly
  increased the fresh and dry weights, chlorophyll content of onion as well
  as P concentration in the root, shoot, and bulb during two growing
  seasons. Moreover, AMF increased the bioavailability
  of P in the rhizosphere and significantly enhanced the N-utilization by
  the inoculated plant. The economic yield of the onion plant inoculated by
  AMF and fertilized by different doses of P fertilizer was much higher than
  that obtained by the control (without AMF). (El-Sherbeny
  et al., 2022)
• Across all species and treatments
  [in a deciduous forest ecosystem in southern Europe], the mycorrhizal
  external mycelium was the dominant pathway (62%) through which carbon
  entered the SOM pool, exceeding the input via leaf litter and fine root
  turnover. The input via the mycorrhizal external mycelium was not
  influenced by elevated CO2, but elevated atmospheric CO2 enhanced soil C
  inputs via fine root turnover. The turnover of the mycorrhizal external
  mycelium may be a fundamental mechanism for the transfer of root-derived C
  to SOM. (Godbold
  et al., 2006)

Growth Benefits of MF

• Perennial
  warm-season C-4 grasses and forbs generally benefited significantly from
  the mycorrhizal symbiosis, whereas biomass production of the cool-season
  C-3 grasses was not affected. Fourteen of the 15 perennial legumes were
  highly responsive to mycorrhizal inoculation. This high mycorrhizal
  dependency of legumes probably reflects the relatively high P demand of
  the N₂-fixation process. (Wilson
  & Hartnett, 1998)

• Unlike the
  native perennials, annuals were generally not responsive to mycorrhizal
  colonization and were lower in percentage root colonization than the
  perennial species. All annual grasses and annual and biennial forbs
  examined in this study showed low mycorrhizal responsiveness. This is not
  surprising, as it has been estimated that only 15% of all annual
  Monocotyledonae form a mycorrhizal association, as compared to 85% of
  perennials (Trappe, 1987). (Wilson
  & Hartnett, 1998)

Build-up of Soil Fungi
from Regenerative Practices

• Mean arbuscular
  mycorrhizal and protozoan biomasses in CM and hayfield samples were about
  10% of those in MP soils. Rhizobia were undetectable in 80% of the samples
  from CM pastures and 57% of the samples from hayfields. (Kleppel,
  2019)
• Fungal biomass
  increased most with increasing plant diversity resulting in a significant
  shift in the fungal-to-bacterial biomass ratio at high plant diversity.
  Fungal biomass increased significantly with plant diversity-induced
  increases in root biomass and the amount of root exudates. (Eisenhauer et al.,
  2017)
• We found that
  late-successional species were more responsive, and demonstrated greater
  specificity, toward individual AM fungal taxa than early-successional
  species. (Koziol
  & Bever, 2016)

• Soil treatment
  was a significant predictor of plant size, with early-successional plants
  growing 40% smaller with AM inoculation and late-successional plants
  growing 383% larger with AM inoculation relative to the non-inoculated
  controls. (Koziol
  & Bever, 2016)

• Soil treatment
  was a strong predictor of nurse plant survival in years 1 (40% more likely
  to survive with AM fungal inoculation) and 2 (about 3x more likely to
  survive than controls). (Koziol
  & Bever, 2016)
• The root
  systems of the cool-season grasses were also less highly colonized by the
  AM fungi, as compared to the warm-season grasses or forbs. (Wilson
  & Hartnett, 1998)
• Fall cover crops significantly
  increased the mycorrhizal inoculum potential of the soils. Forage oats
  (Avena sativa (L.) Hausskn.), by itself or in mixtures, was most effective
  at both sites where it was planted. (Lehman
  et al., 2012)

Fungi
(Non-Specific)

Impact of Tillage on Soil
Fungi

• Within the pairs of study soils, those that were tilled had lower
  fungal activities and stored C than those that were managed to native or
  no-till systems. (Bailey
  et al. 2002)
• Tillage practices had differing effects on soil microbial
  co-occurrence networks, with rotary and deep tillage increasing the
  complexity of bacterial networks but simplifying fungal networks. (Guan
  et al., 2022)

Impact of Disturbance on
Soil Fungi Diversity

• Conversely, we observed a lower fungal taxonomic richness in forest
  soils when compared to vineyard soils. In forests, the low-disturbance
  environment could cause competitive exclusions and induce the dominance of
  opportunistic organisms. In vineyard contexts, higher soil disturbance
  could limit the process of competitive exclusion and thus favour higher
  diversity, as predicted by the “humped-back” model describing the response
  of the diversity of a community to environmental stress (Giller
  et al., 1998), and also observed with regard
  to bacterial richness in agricultural soils (Terrat
  et al., 2017). This greater fungal
  alpha-diversity in croplands than in forests could be attributed to
  greater nutrient availability from fertiliser inputs in arable soils,
  promoting some microbial species (Szoboszlay
  et al., 2017). (Quiquerez
  et al., 2022)

Impact of Removing Grazing
Animals on Soil Fungi

• The phylotype richness of fungi decreased by 19% in the grazing
  removal treatment and the phylotype richness of protists decreased by 17%.
  (Schrama
  et al., 2021)

Benefits of Soil Fungi

• In all pairs of soils, soils that had higher absolute fungal
  activities also had more total soil C and when two extreme cases were
  removed fungal activity was correlated with total soil C. Thus, in this
  small set of diverse soils, increased fungal activities, more than F:B
  ratios, were associated with increased soil C. (Bailey
  et al. 2002)
• Fungal mycelia
  reinforce aggregate tensile strength. (Wilpiszeski
  et al., 2019)
• We conclude
  that fungal inoculation improved plant growth and generally elicited a
  stronger defense response to stink bug feeding. Accordingly, plant damage
  was reduced by T. harzianum. (Van
  Hee et al., 2023)

Increased Fungal
Populations from Regenerative Practices

• Relative fungal
  biomass in Multi-Paddock soils was 1.4 times higher than in Conventionally
  Managed (low livestock density, low rotation frequency) soils and 1.7 times higher than
  in hayfield soils. (Kleppel,
  2019)
• MP soils
  exhibited higher F:B ratios than CM pastures or hayfields, in part because
  relative bacterial biomass was lower and relative fungal biomass was
  higher in MP than in CM and hayfield soils. (Kleppel,
  2019)
• AMP grazing
  systems outperformed CG systems by generating: (a) 92.68 g m⁻² more standing
  crop biomass (SCB), promoting 46% higher pasture photosynthetic capacity;
  (b) a strong positive linear relationship of SCB with fungal biomass and
  fungal to bacterial (F:B) biomass ratio. (Johnson et al.,
  2022)
• Moreover, where
  the soil was ploughed, the species were evenly distributed. There was
  higher spatial variability in the absence of ploughing, with fungal taxa
  distributed according to a small-scale pattern, corresponding to
  micro-niches that probably remained undisturbed and heterogeneously
  distributed. (Orrù
  et al., 2021)

 

Human
Public Health

Land Use Change Effects on
Human Health

• Significant
  associations between forest cover loss and zoonotic and vector-borne
  disease outbreaks were observed, respectively, for 47 and 49 countries,
  with the majority in tropical climate (Annex
  1, Supplementary Table
  1). Significant associations between forest cover gain and zoonotic
  or vector-borne outbreaks were observed for, respectively, 27 and 29
  countries, the majority situated outside the tropical environment (see Annex 1, Supplementary Table
  2). (Morand
  & Lajaunie, 2021)
• Specifically, we observed that
  lower land-use intensity and vectors were associated with lower prevalence
  of VBDs, whereas medium land-use intensity was linked to higher
  prevalence. Additionally, higher HFI values facilitate the prevalence of
  vector-borne diseases in both vector and host populations. These findings
  strengthen the reliability of the categorical classification system used,
  further supporting that the most pronounced effects on VBD prevalence
  occur during the early stages of land use degradation. (Ferraguti et al,
  2023)

Nutrition
(Animal)

Benefits of Diverse
Forage

• Willow (Salix spp.) leaves
  contain a high concentration of cobalt (∼6 times the requirement of lambs). Supplementary willow tree leaves
  can be used by producers to improve vitamin B12 status in lambs. (Walker
  et al., 2022)

Nutrition
(Human)

Hunger Statistics

• The State of
  Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022 (FAO,
  2022)

• Almost 3.1
  billion people could not afford a healthy diet in 2020 due to the
  increased cost.

• 702-828
  million people worldwide are facing hunger. 

• World hunger
  rose further in 2021. After remaining relatively unchanged since 2015,
  the prevalence of undernourishment (PoU) jumped from 8.0 to 9.3 percent
  from 2019 to 2020 and rose at a slower pace in 2021 to 9.8 percent. 

• Africa- 57.9%
  Moderate & Severe Food Insecurity (23.4% Severe Food Insecurity)

• Latin America
  & South America- 40.6% Moderate & Severe Food Insecurity (14.2%
  Severe)

• Asia- 24.6% Moderate &
  Severe Food Insecurity (10.5% Severe Food Insecurity)

Malnutrition

• Around 45% of
  deaths among children under 5 years of age are linked to undernutrition.
  These mostly occur in low- and middle-income countries. At the same time,
  in these same countries, rates of childhood overweight and obesity are
  rising. (WHO,
  2020)
• Globally in
  2020, 149 million children under 5 were estimated to be stunted (too short
  for age), 45 million were estimated to be wasted (too thin for height),
  and 38.9 million were overweight or obese. (WHO,
  2020)
• Micronutrient
  deficiencies, especially iron, vitamin A, zinc, iodine, and folate, are
  prevalent in the developing world, affecting an estimated 2 billion people
  worldwide. (FAO, 2004)

• Global
  micronutrient deficiency burdens have decreased since 1990. Still, an
  estimated one-third of people suffer from at least one form of
  micronutrient deficiency. (Han
  et al., 2022)

• One analysis of US national
  survey data (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006)
  found that children and adults with high intakes of added sugars (>25%
  of energy intake; the upper limit recommended by the National Academy of
  Medicine) had lower dietary intakes of several micronutrients, especially
  vitamins A, C, and E, as well as magnesium. An estimated 13% of the US
  population have added sugar intakes above this cutoff level for added
  sugars and may be at risk for micronutrient inadequacies. (Marriott et al.,
  2010)

Rise in Chronic Diseases
of Abundance

• Despite overall
  health progress (i.e. Global life expectancy rose from 67 years in 2000,
  to 73 years in 2019.), WHO said that the increasing toll of Non
  Communicable Diseases (NCDs) meant that if the trend were to continue, by
  around 2050, chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer,
  diabetes and respiratory illnesses – will account for 86 per cent of the
  90 million deaths each year: a staggering 90 per cent increase in absolute
  numbers, since 2019. (WHO,
  2023)
• Currently, some
  50% of the US population has a chronic disease, creating an epidemic, and
  86% of health care costs are attributable to chronic disease. (Holman,
  2020)
• Cardiovascular
  diseases account for most NCD deaths, or 17.9 million people annually,
  followed by cancers (9.3 million), chronic respiratory diseases (4.1
  million), and diabetes (2.0 million including kidney disease deaths caused
  by diabetes). These four groups of diseases account for over 80% of all
  premature NCD deaths. (WHO,
  2022)
• Until the early 20th century,
  pneumonia, tuberculosis, and gastroenteritis were the major causes of
  death worldwide, accounting for one-third of all deaths. In the early 21st
  century, however, the major causes of death have become heart disease,
  cancer, and cerebrovascular disease, accounting for two-thirds of all the
  deaths. Thus, not only the major causes of death but also the proportion
  of chronic diseases among the causes of death have changed. (Hong,
  2019)

Plant-Based Meat Facts

• Despite apparent similarities
  based on Nutrition Facts panels, our metabolomics analysis found that
  metabolite abundances between the plant-based meat alternative and
  grass-fed ground beef differed by 90% (171 out of 190 profiled
  metabolites; false discovery rate adjusted p < 0.05). (Van
  Vliet et al., 2021)

Decrease in Nutrition in
Crops from Conventional

• Recent studies
  of historical nutrient content data for fruits and vegetables spanning 50
  to 70 years show apparent median declines of 5% to 40% or more in
  minerals, vitamins, and protein in groups of foods, especially in
  vegetables. (Davis,
  2009)

 

Health-Promoting
Nutrients in Meat and Milk

• Scientists at
  UChicago discover that trans-vaccenic acid (TVA), a fatty acid found in
  beef, lamb, and dairy products, improves the ability of immune cells to
  fight tumors. (Fan
  et al., 2023)

 

Increase in Nutrition in
Crops from Regenerative/Organic

• Averaged across
  all nine farm pairings the regenerative farm crops had 34% more vitamin K
  (10% more to 57% more), 15% more vitamin E (11% less to 70% more), 14%
  more vitamin B1 (17% less to 2 times more), and 17% more vitamin B2 (17%
  less to 3 times more) (Table 2). The crops from the regenerative farms
  also had 15% more total carotenoids (6% less to 48% more), 20% more total
  phenolics (14% less to more than twice as many), and 22% more total
  phytosterols (25% less to more than 2 times more). In addition, regeneratively
  grown crops had 11% more calcium (1% less to 43% more), 16% more
  phosphorus (10% less to twice as much), and 27% more copper (16% less to
  twice as much). (Montgomery et al.,
  2022)
• The beef from
  the regenerative farm had 3 times more omega-3 fats, and more than 6 times
  more of the essential omega-3, alpha linolenic acid (ALA), than the
  conventional beef (Table 4). The regenerative beef also had more than half
  more to almost three quarters more of the trio of long-chain omega-3s
  (EPA, DPA, and DHA), as well as two-thirds of the omega-6 fats, making for
  an omega-6 to omega-3 ratio one fifth as large as for conventional beef
  (1.3:1 vs 6.2:1). (Montgomery et al.,
  2022)
• Livestock
  allowed to graze diverse, nutrient rich forage accumulate higher levels of
  health-promoting phytonutrients, like terpenoids, phenols, tocopherols and
  carotenoids in their meat and milk, as well as a healthy ratio of omega
  6:3 fatty acids compared to animals allowed monoculture pastures and
  confined animals finished on high grain diets. (Van
  Vliet et al., 2017)
• Grazing
  livestock on plant-species diverse pastures concentrates a wider variety
  and higher amounts of phytochemicals in meat and milk compared to grazing
  monoculture pastures, while phytochemicals are further reduced or absent
  in meat and milk of grain-fed animals. (Van
  Vliet et al., 2021)

• Pasture-finishing
  bison compared to finishing with meadow hay, alfalfa hay bales, and whole
  shell corn access prior to harvest broadly improves metabolic health
  pathways of bison and increases the presence of potentially
  health-promoting compounds in their meat. (Van Vliet et al.,
  2023)

• The results of
  this study confirmed that aggressive tillage of agricultural soils
  significantly reduced ergothioneine (a potent antioxidant and
  anti-inflammatory amino acid that is produced in nature mainly by
  non-yeast fungi, cyanobacteria, and mycobacteria) content in three grain
  crops grown over three years when compared to alternative agriculture
  methods involving little or no disturbance of the soil. (Beelman et al.,
  2021)

Pesticides

Pesticide Use

• Globally,
  glyphosate use has risen almost 15-fold since so-called “Roundup Ready,”
  genetically engineered glyphosate-tolerant crops were introduced in 1996.
  In 2014, farmers sprayed enough glyphosate to apply ~1.0 kg/ha (0.8
  pound/acre) on every hectare of U.S.-cultivated cropland and nearly 0.53
  kg/ha (0.47 pounds/acre) on all cropland worldwide. (Benbrook,
  2016)
• Global
  pesticide use in 2020 was 2.59 million tons (518 billion pounds). (FAO,
  2020)
• About 1 billion pounds of
  conventional pesticides are used each year in the United States to control
  weeds, insects, and other pests. (USGS,
  2017)

Plant Exudate
Recruitment

• Plants do not
  just influence soil microbes through root exudates (Adesemoye
  et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2021;);
  additionally, they use their intelligence systems (signaling process) to
  detect pathogenic microorganisms and recruit beneficial soil microorganisms to harness
  services for pathogen control, nutrient acquisition, and growth promotion
  (Adesemoye
  and Kloepper, 2009; Mendes et al., 2011; Pascale et al.,
  2020; Zheng et al., 2019). (Adesemoye
  et al., 2023)
• Certain strains of Bacillus
  subtilis, B. pumilus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P.
  aureofaciens and Streptomyces spp. prevent plant diseases by
  outcompeting plant pathogens in the rhizosphere, producing anti-fungal
  compounds and promoting plant and root growth. They are used against a
  range of plant pathogens including damping-off and soft rots (Canan 2013;
  Chatzipavlidis et al. 2013). (Singh
  et al., 2017)

Herbicide-Resistant Weeds

• There are currently 522 unique
  cases (species x site of action) of herbicide resistant weeds globally,
  with 269 species (154 dicots and 115 monocots). Weeds have evolved
  resistance to 21 of the 31 known herbicide sites of action and to 166
  different herbicides. Herbicide resistant weeds have been reported in 99
  crops in 72 countries. (Heap, 2023)

Decreased Pesticide Use
in Regenerative Agriculture

• See Pest
  Management section

 

Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical Use

• Total livestock
  sales are now nearly double the sales for human medicine (6.19M kg vs.
  3.30M kg). Sales of medically important antibiotics for pigs and cattle
  combined are 55% higher than sales of those medicines for human patients.
  (Wallinga,
  2021)
• Most
  antimicrobials used in US animal agriculture (54%) are medically important
  antibiotics — i.e., antibacterial agents from the same drug classes relied
  upon for use in human medicine. (USDA, 2021)
• Sales of
  medically important antimicrobials for all food animal production rose 11%
  between 2017 and 2019, driven by a 28% rise in sales for swine production
  (levels declined 6% again from 2019 to 2020). This rise may stem partly
  from several recent outbreaks in US swine production, including porcine
  reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRSV) and porcine epidemic
  diarrhea (PED), given the potential for antibiotics to be used before
  viral infection is confirmed or in cases of secondary bacterial infection.
  Meanwhile, the sales of non-medically important antimicrobials fell 17%
  between 2017 and 2020. (USDA, 2021)
• The US chicken
  industry has made rapid strides to eliminate the routine use of medically
  important antimicrobials, and that progress is now being described in both
  government and industry reports. A poultry trade industry publication
  recently announced 60% of US broiler chickens are now raised without any
  antimicrobials. (Poultry
  Health Today, 2020 , USDA,
  2021)
• Based on a decade’s worth of FDA
  summary reports on antimicrobial sales, the consumption of antimicrobials
  by food animal production has declined by about 18% overall since 2009,
  with sales of non-medically important classes falling 13% and sales of
  medically important classes declining 22%. (USDA,
  2021) While sales of sulfonamides and tetracyclines have had the most
  marked declines (reduced by 44% and 25%, respectively, from 2009), sales
  of some drug classes critically important to human medicine have risen,
  including cephalosporins (up 30% from 2009) and fluoroquinolones (up 60%
  from 2013). (Wallinga
  et al., 2022)

Persistence of Agricultural
Pharmaceuticals

• Composting
  temperatures were not any more effective than ambient temperature in
  increasing the rate or extent of monensin (antibiotic from streptomyces
  cinnamonensis) removal in either poultry litter or dairy manure.
  Composting was effective for lasalocid (antibiotic/coccidiostat) 
  removal in poultry litter, but is likely to be too slow to be useful in
  practice (8–12 weeks at 65 °C for >90% residue removal).
  Composting was effective for amprolium (anticoccidial) removal from
  poultry litter and salinomycin in dairy manure but both required
  4–6 weeks for >90% removal. However, composting did not increase
  the removal rates or salinomycin (antibiotic) in poultry litter or the
  removal rates of lasalocid (antibiotic/coccidiostat) or amprolium
  (anticoccidial) in dairy manure. (Arikan
  et al., 2016)
• One study
  recovered three tetracycline residues and sixty-three antibiotic-resistant
  Gram-negative bacteria that presented with percentage resistance between
  33.3% and 66.7% to five well-known antibiotics employed in livestock
  farming, viz. tetracycline, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid,
  sulphamethoxazole, and ampicillin. (Carballo
  et al., 2013)
• High levels of
  tetracycline concentration in manure and soil samples procured from three
  large commercial swine farms were found from three different regions in
  China. (Zhu
  et al., 2013)
• Most
  antibiotics are poorly absorbed and metabolized in animal bodies,
  resulting in approximately 30–90 % of them being excreted into soil and
  aquatic environments via manure and sewage water (Sarmah
  et al., 2006; Chen
  et al., 2016; Urra
  et al., 2019). (Chen
  et al., 2023)
• In a metagenomics analysis of
  paddy soils from China, a broad spectrum profile of antibiotic resistance
  genes, with multidrug resistance being the most dominant at a level of
  38–47.5% of all the samples collected. (Xiao
  et al., 2016)

Antibiotic Resistance

• Total livestock
  sales are now nearly double the sales for human medicine (6.19M kg vs.
  3.30M kg). Sales of medically important antibiotics for pigs and cattle
  combined are 55% higher than sales of those medicines for human patients.
  (Wallinga,
  2021)
• Superbugs
  already infect more than 2.8 million people each year in the United
  States, contributing to between 35,000 and 162,000 deaths. (Wallinga
  & Carr, 2020)
• Infections by
  antibiotic-resistant bacteria are responsible for around 700,000 deaths
  per year worldwide and estimated to be accountable for over 10 million
  deaths per year in 2050 (O’Neill,
  2014 , Aslam
  et al, 2018).
• Antibiotic use for essentially
  non-medical or non-therapeutic purposes in agricultural settings that are
  at subtherapeutic levels over an extended period is observed as a major
  route for the advent of antibiotic resistance and antibiotic-resistant
  bacteria, and resistance genes have been reported to be transferred to
  humans. (Durso
  & Cook, 2014)

Antibiotic Use Increases GHG
Fluxes

• Unexpectedly, antibiotic
  treatment raised methane fluxes from dung, possibly by altering the interactions
  between methanogenic archaea and bacteria in rumen and dung environments.
  Our findings that antibiotics restructure dung beetle microbiota and
  modify greenhouse gas emissions from dung indicate that antibiotic
  treatment may have unintended, cascading ecological effects that extend
  beyond the target animal. (Hammer et al., 2016)

Decreased Pharmaceutical
Use in Regenerative Agriculture

• Much anecdotal evidence on the
  topic, but not many research findings. I will add research results as I
  hopefully find them.

Plant
Production

Current Rates of
desertification

• We found that,
  between 1982 and 2015, 6% of the world’s drylands underwent
  desertification driven by unsustainable land use practices compounded by
  anthropogenic climate change. Despite an average global greening,
  anthropogenic climate change has degraded 12.6% (5.43 million km²) of drylands,
  contributing to desertification and affecting 213 million people, 93% of
  who live in developing economies. (Burrell
  et al, 2020)
• Globally,
  around 1.4 billion people are affected by land degradation, of which 74%
  are poor people. Additionally, drought and desertification are leading to
  an annual loss of 12 million hectares of arable land. (FAO)
• In America,
  2000–2021 was the driest 22-yr period since at least 800 AD. (Williams,
  2022)
• The observed
  correlation between the trends of declining precipitation and increasing
  dust during the rainy season in the Sahel can now be subject to another
  interpretation: The higher dust frequency is not necessarily a result of
  the decreased rainfall, but rather its cause. (Rosenfeld,
  2015)

Increased plant coverage
from Regenerative Agriculture Practices

• Standing crop
  biomass was >300% higher on AMP ranches compared to CG ranches. (Apfelbaum
  et al., 2022)

• AMP grazing
  systems outperformed CG systems by generating: (a) 92.68 g m⁻² more standing
  crop biomass (SCB), promoting 46% higher pasture photosynthetic capacity,
  while observing a 19.52% reduction in soil C (CO₂) respiration
  rates. (Johnson et al.,
  2022)
• Strategically
  managed (SGM) ranches had significantly less bare ground and significantly
  more riparian vegetation than adjacent lands not managed with SGM.
  Furthermore, we found no significant difference in bare ground between SGM
  pastures on Ranch 3 and adjoining pastures receiving multiyear rest. Ranch
  3 had less bare ground than neighbors despite an 80% increase in stocking
  rate from 2003 to 2015. (Danvir
  et al. 2018)

• Our work also
  illustrates the value of long-term data sets. Precipitation apparently
  caused riparian vegetative cover on both SGM and CS pastures to fluctuate
  significantly over time and to converge at high and low precipitation
  extremes. (Danvir
  et al. 2018)

• The separation
  between SGM and CS (conventional) took 5 to 7 years to manifest after SGM
  began. This was followed by a period (1992-2007) in which riparian cover
  was consistently greater on SGM stream reaches than CS reaches. Toward
  the end of the recent drought, the cover values again converged. Three-
  to five-year studies conducted at the beginning, middle, or end of the
  time series would each have observed different results. (Danvir
  et al. 2018) 

• Under adaptive
  rotational grazing, C₃ perennial
  grass productivity and stocking rate both increased following
  above-average precipitation. But when adaptive rotational management was
  directly compared with continuous grazing with the same increase in
  stocking rate, continuous grazing achieved similar vegetation outcomes
  with greater cattle weight gains. (Augustine
  et al., 2020)
• The vegetation
  in HRM pastures was 70% and 43% higher than on continuously grazed or
  minimally rotated pastures, respectively. (Cassidy &
  Kleppel, 2017)
• Net above
  ground primary production (NAPP) was nearly three times higher in MP
  pastures than in CM pastures and seven times higher than in hayfields at
  the time of sampling. (Kleppel,
  2019)
• Aboveground community biomass was
  positively related to the number of species measured across functional
  groups as well as to the number of functional groups measured across
  different levels of species richness. Furthermore, increasing the number
  of species within functional groups increased aboveground community
  biomass, indicating that species within functional groups were not
  redundant with respect to biomass production. (Marquard
  et al., 2009)
• There is now a considerable
  amount of data that shows how the initial number of producer species in an
  experimental unit impacts the standing biomass of producers (Fig.
  2A)…. The mean value for LR_net is e^0.36, indicating
  that the most diverse polycultures attain, on average, 1.43× more biomass
  than the average monoculture (95% confidence interval = 1.36 to 1.49×, Table 2). These
  results are consistent for both aquatic and terrestrial systems with
  abundant data, suggesting considerable generality (Fig.
  2B). (Cardinale
  et al., 2011)
• This is exactly evidenced in our
  results of multiple cropping (MC) farms of Design B and C,
  in which the overall per plant productivity of the crops is more than five
  times higher than that of single cropping (SC) farms. (Deb,
  2021)
• Corn yield has
  averaged 4% higher (p<0.0003) and soybean yield has averaged 16% higher
  (p<0.0001) in the more diverse systems compared with the 2-year system.
  (Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)

Increased
Crop Production from Intercropping

• Using four
  long-term (10–16 years) experiments on soils of differing fertility, we
  found that grain yields in intercropped systems were on average 22%
  greater than in matched monocultures and had greater year-to-year
  stability. (Li
  et al., 2021)

Soil
Physical Qualities

Importance of Soil
Aggregation

• Aggregates
  serve as the functional unit of a soil ecosystem. Associations with
  aggregate structures are the rule rather than the exception (Monrozier
  et al., 1991, Gestel et al., 1996). Most (∼90%) soil bacteria associate with
  macroaggregates, and a majority (∼70%) live
  within microaggregates (Ranjard
  et al., 2000). Cells tend to cluster with one
  another, and less than 1% of the available soil surface area is typically
  colonized by soil microbes (Young
  & Crawford, 2004). (Wilpiszeski
  et al., 2019)
• A model from Ebrahimi
  and Or (2016) states that maximum aerobic
  respiration rates were predicted at an effective water saturation of 0.75,
  close to field observations. (Wilpiszeski
  et al., 2019)

Increased
Bulk Density from Conventional Grazing

• Bulk densities increased with
  higher animal unit densities under conventional grazing. (Apfelbaum
  et al., 2022)

Improved Aggregation
from Regenerative Practices

• It was noticed that the Integrated Crops and Livestock (ICL) system
  not only enhanced the macroaggregates [compared to a traditional
  corn–soybean (Glycine max. L) rotation] but accentuated the
  presence of microaggregates due to persistent binding agents, which are
  critical in SOC protection against microbial decomposition. (Bansal
  et al., 2022)
• The proportion
  of soil macroaggregate fraction was significantly increased by 30.6–33.7%
  and 37.8–40.6% under the high-level manure treatments (M2 and M3) compared
  with that under low manure (M1) and no manure (M0) treatments. (Jiang
  et al., 2018)

• Tensile
  strength and mean weight diameter were significantly (P < 0.05)
  elevated by high manure application. (Jiang
  et al., 2018)

• The results
  showed that compared to monoculture, crop diversification significantly
  increased the mean weight diameter and bulk soil C by 7.5% and 3.3%,
  respectively. Furthermore, there was a significant increase in the
  proportion of macroaggregates and their associated C content by 5.0% and
  12.5%, while there was a significant decrease in the proportion of
  microaggregates as well as silt-clay fractions along with their associated
  C under crop diversification. (Li
  et al., 2024)

Decreased Bulk Density
from Regenerative Practices

• The mean (±SE)
  bulk density of Multi-Paddock soils (0.94 ± 0.14 g cm−3) was about half
  that of hayfields (1.83 ± 0.14). (Kleppel,
  2019)

Rhizosheaths

• The
  observations indicate that specific root exudate polysaccharides, distinct
  from cell wall polysaccharides, are adhesive factors secreted by root
  axes, and that they contribute to the formation and stabilisation of
  cereal rhizosheaths. Periodate oxidation indicates that it is the
  carbohydrate components of the HMW exudates that have soil-binding
  properties.  (Galloway et al.,
  2020)

 

Soil
Predator/Prey

Importance of Soil
Predators

• Both protozoa and nematodes are
  aquatic and live and move in soil water films and water-filled pores of
  soil aggregates. They release excess N from consumed bacteria in the form
  of ammonium (NH⁴⁺). This usually occurs near the root system of a plant. (Hoorman,
  2011)
• At low nematode
  densities, feeding by nematodes stimulates the growth rate of bacteria
  populations. For example, low grazing may stimulate bacteria growth and
  increase nutrient release. Small or low root consumption by nematodes may
  stimulate plant root growth like branch pruning, increasing root biomass.
  (Hoorman,
  2011)
• Single protozoa
  (paramecium) can consume as many as 5 million bacteria in one day. The
  protozoa help maintain an ecological balance in the soil. When they graze
  on bacteria, protozoa stimulate growth of the bacterial population and
  decomposition rates and soil aggregation. (Hoorman,
  2011)

Damage to Predator
Populations from Conventional Practices

• Mean arbuscular
  mycorrhizal and protozoan biomasses in CM and hayfield samples were about
  10% of those in MP soils. (Kleppel,
  2019) 
• Michigan State
  research shows that the nematode community structure varies among
  different cropping systems. The highest concentration of parasitic
  nematodes was found in conventional tillage systems with progressively
  lower concentrations in integrated fertilizer, integrated compost and the
  lowest in transitional organic systems. The ratio of non-parasitic to
  parasitic nematodes may be an indication of ecosystem soil health with
  organic systems having better soil health. (Hoorman,
  2011)

• Most conventional farms maximize
  crop yields using purchased inputs and this frequently limits biological
  diversity and results in extensive food supplies for parasitic nematodes
  with few predators and few factors to limit their population. (Hoorman,
  2011)

Impact to Soil Predators
with Removal of Grazing Animals

• The phylotype richness of fungi decreased by 19% in the grazing
  removal treatment and the phylotype richness of protists decreased by 17%.
  (Schrama
  et al., 2021)

Improvement to Predator
Populations from Regenerative Practices

• AMP grazing
  systems outperformed CG systems by generating: (a) 92.68 g m⁻² more standing
  crop biomass (SCB), promoting 46% higher pasture photosynthetic capacity.
  Significant predator/prey interactions with an inverse relationship with
  bacterial population biomass and a positive relationship with total
  protozoa enumeration when compared to SCB. (Johnson
  et al., 2022)
• Manure
  treatments significantly increased the total number of nematodes and the
  four functional groups in soil macroaggregates. However, the elevated soil
  pH by lime reduced the total number of nematodes as well as bacterivores
  and plant parasites. (Jiang
  et al., 2018)

• Changes in
  soil nematode assemblages corresponded largely to those in soil porosity
  of the macroaggregates. The porosity of soil macroaggregates with
  porosity >100 μm was significantly improved under the M2 (High manure)
  and M3 (High Manure + Lime) treatments, likely supporting the observed
  high densities of bacterivores. (Jiang
  et al., 2018)

 

Water
Quality

U.S. Water Quality

• About 46% of
  our rivers and streams have excess nutrients, and only 28% are assessed as
  “healthy” based on their biological communities. (EPA,
  2022) For lakes, 21% have high levels of algal growth and 39% have
  measurable levels of a cyanotoxin—a byproduct of certain kinds of bacteria
  (e.g., blue-green algae). Around 21% of coastal waters have high nutrient
  levels. Other waters have high levels of sediment and bacteria. (EPA,
  2023)
• Using a
  process-based hydro-ecological model, we reveal that over 60% of the land
  area of the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River Basin has experienced increasing
  extreme precipitation since 2000, and this area yields over 80% of N
  leaching loss across the region. Despite occurring in ~9 days year⁻¹, extreme
  precipitation events contribute ~1/3 of annual precipitation, and ~1/3 of
  total N yield on average. (Lu,
  2020)
• National
  Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-supported scientists announced that
  this year’s Gulf of Mexico “dead zone”— an area of low to no oxygen that
  can kill fish and marine life — is approximately 3,275 square miles.
  That’s more than 2 million acres of habitat potentially unavailable to
  fish and bottom species — larger than the land area of Rhode Island and
  Delaware combined. (NOAA,
  2022)

• The five-year
  average dead zone size (also known as the hypoxic zone) is now 4,280
  square miles, which is over two times larger than management targets.
  Since records began in 1985, the largest hypoxic zone measured was 8,776
  square miles in 2017. (NOAA,
  2022)

• Recent
  research has indicated that so much nitrogen has accumulated in the
  Mississippi River basin that it may take 30 years or more to reduce loads
  enough to meaningfully reduce the size of the Gulf dead zone (Ballard
  et al. 2019; Van
  Meter, Cappellen, and Basu 2018).

• When including all 29 forever
  chemicals, EPA data confirms that the drinking water of approximately 26
  million Americans is contaminated, according to the Enivornmental Working
  Group non-profit. The data is also “consistent” with a 2020 study (Andrews
  & Naidenka, 2020) from the group that calculated
  more than 200 million Americans could have some form of PFAS in their
  drinking water. (EPA,
  2023)

Global Water Quality

• The World
  Health Organization estimates that almost 10% of the population in the
  world do not have access to improved drinking water sources. (WHO,
  2022)
• Globally, at
  least 2 billion people use a drinking water source contaminated with
  feces. (WHO,
  2022) 
• 90% of sewage
  in developing countries is discharged untreated directly into water
  bodies. (United
  Nations, nd)
• A reduction of about one-third of
  the global biodiversity is estimated to be a consequence of the
  degradation of freshwater ecosystems mainly due to pollution of water
  resources and aquatic ecosystems. (United
  Nations, nd)

Public Health Concerns

• Contaminated
  water and poor sanitation are linked to transmission of diseases such as
  cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio. (WHO,
  2022)
• Some 829 000
  people are estimated to die each year from diarrhoea as a result of unsafe
  drinking-water, sanitation and hand hygiene. Yet diarrhoea is largely
  preventable, and the deaths of 297 000 children aged under 5 years could
  be avoided each year if these risk factors were addressed. (WHO,
  2022)

• In 2017, over
  220 million people required preventative treatment for schistosomiasis –
  an acute and chronic disease caused by parasitic worms contracted through
  exposure to infested water. (WHO,
  2022)

• Probably the
  best-known human health effects caused by Harmful Algal Bloom-related
  organisms are the shellfish poisonings: amnesic, azaspiracid, diarrhetic,
  neurotoxic, and paralytic shellfish poisoning. (Backer
  & McGillicuddy, 2006)

• Specific
  symptoms of harmful algal bloom exposure include: gastrointestinal,
  generalized (e.g., headache, fever), and dermatologic issues. (CDC,
  2021)

• Nitrate levels in our water
  resources have increased in many areas of the world largely due to
  applications of inorganic fertilizer and animal manure in agricultural
  areas. Considering all studies, the strongest evidence for a relationship
  between drinking water nitrate ingestion and adverse health outcomes
  (besides methemoglobinemia AKA blue baby syndrome) is for colorectal
  cancer, thyroid disease, and neural tube defects. (Ward
  et al., 2018)

Flooding

• For every 1°C
  increase, 7% more water vapor is carried by the same air volume. As a
  result, increasing temperatures have created changes in the expectations
  of the Intensity, Duration, and Frequency (IDF) of rainfall events.
  Rainfall events that were thought to occur only once every hundred years
  are now occurring with far greater frequency. In some places, these
  formerly rare events are now occurring as often as every 5 or 10 years,
  based on the First Street Foundation Precipitation Model (FSF-PM). (First
  Street Foundation, 2023)
• The results of First Street’s
  study show that over half the population – some 51% of Americans – live in
  areas that are now twice as likely to experience a severe “1-in-100 year
  flood” event as expected from Atlas 14. Roughly 21% of the country can now
  expect their “1-in-100-year flood” to happen every 25 years. And in the
  most extreme cases, over 20 counties in the US – home to over 1.3 million
  people – are expected to experience the current “1-in-100 year flood”
  severe event at least once every 8-10 years. (Eby,
  2023)

Concentrated animal feeding
operations (CAFOs) & Cropping

• Contaminants
  from animal wastes can enter the environment through pathways such as
  through leakage from poorly constructed manure lagoons, or during major
  precipitation events resulting in either overflow of lagoons and runoff
  from recent applications of waste to farm fields, or atmospheric
  deposition followed by dry or wet fallout (Aneja
  et al., 2003)
• Although
  anaerobic digestion of wastes in surface storage lagoons can effectively
  reduce or destroy many pathogens, substantial remaining densities of
  microbial pathogens in waste spills and seepage can contaminate receiving
  surface- and ground-waters. (Burkholder
  et al., 1993)
• Compared to
  upstream Total P loads, those downstream from three Wisconsin dairy CAFOs
  increased by 91% after the expansions – over four times that of
  concentration increases – implying that the rate of downstream phosphorus
  transfer has increased due to CAFO expansion. (Waller
  et al., 2019)

• About a half
  million tons of pesticides, 12 million tons of nitrogen, and 4 million
  tons of phosphorus fertilizer are applied annually to crops in the
  continental United States. Soil erosion, nutrient loss, bacteria from
  livestock manure, and pesticides constitute the primary stressors to water
  quality. (EPA,
  2023)
• In 69 of
  Minnesota’s 72 agricultural counties, nitrogen from manure combined with
  nitrogen in fertilizer exceeded the recommendations of the Minnesota
  Pollution Control Agency, or MPCA, and the University of Minnesota. In 13
  counties, nitrogen from the two sources surpassed the recommendations by
  more than half. This excess nitrogen is the major cause of nitrate
  pollution in drinking water, which is linked to elevated rates of cancer.
  (Porter,
  2020)
• Most of the
  nitrogen that contributes to the dead zone of the Gulf of Mexico—between
  60 and 80 percent—originates on farms and livestock operations in the
  Midwest, largely in the form of synthetic fertilizers that run off fields
  of corn and other crops. (Robertson &
  Saad, 2013 , EPA,
  2015)
• Further, we
  found that scenarios that decreased May nitrogen loading by 20 percent or
  more could reduce the average size of the dead zone to levels recommended
  by the Environmental Protection Agency’s Hypoxia Task Force. (UCS,
  2020)
• Since approximately half of all
  applied nitrogen drains from agricultural fields to contaminate surface
  and groundwater, nitrate concentrations in our water resources have
  increased. (Vitousek
  et al., 1997)

Cleaner Water from
Regenerative Agriculture Practices

• Prairie strips
  placed downslope from manured crop soil significantly reduced the
  cumulative abundance of manure associated antibiotic resistance genes in
  both runoff water and runoff sediment. (Alt
  et al., 2023)
• As part of a
  corn-soybean rotation, oats (Avena sativa L.)  reduced nitrate
  concentrations and loads in subsurface drainage water by 26% whereas rye
  (Secale cereale L.) reduced 48% nitrate concentration. (Kaspar
  et al., 2012)
• Meta-analyses
  of research found that nitrate leaching was 40% lower in legume cover crop
  treatment than fallow systems and 70% lower in non-legume cover crop
  treatment than fallow system. (Tonitto
  et al., 2006)
• Research shows that by converting
  10% of a crop-field to diverse, native perennial vegetation, farmers and
  landowners can reduce total phosphorous and nitrogen lost through runoff
  by 90 and 85 percent, respectively. (Iowa
  State, 2019)

Improved Water Cycling
from Regenerative Agriculture Practices

• Carbon follows
  water. Overall, the availability of water seems to be the dominant control
  of carbon dioxide uptake by land vegetation. (Jung et al., 2017 , Humphrey
  et al., 2018 , Green
  et al., 2019)
• Water follows
  carbon. Higher carbon-content soils have high water holding capacity,
  which can extend the longevity and area of green photosynthesizing leaves,
  and elevated evapotranspiration of water vapor and substantial latent heat
  fluxes that govern 95% of the earth’s heat dynamics and hydrological
  cooling of earth and its climate. (Kravčík
  et al., 2007)
• Comparison of
  eight neighboring farms across the United States found that regenerative
  farms had 3% to 12% soil organic matter (mean = 6.3%), whereas those on
  conventional farms had 2% to 5% (mean = 3.5%). (Montgomery
  et al., 2022)
• At the ranch
  level, soil water infiltration rate ranged from 8 to 256 mm h⁻¹ (mean of 105
  mm h⁻¹) in grasslands under adaptive grazing, and 15 to 205 mm h⁻¹ (mean of 74 mm
  h⁻¹) on neighbouring ranches. (Dobert
  et al., 2021)
• AMP water
  infiltration rates ranged from 2.54 to 14.4 cm/h, averaging 7.2 cm/h,
  while CG treatment rates varied from 0.5 to 11.7 cm/h, averaging 5.0 cm/h.
  (Apfelbaum
  et al., 2022)

• Water
  infiltration was positively associated with increased litter mass under
  adaptive grazing, whereas higher bulk density (and sandier) soils were
  associated with decreased infiltration rates. (Apfelbaum
  et al., 2022)

• No significant
  relationships were evident between long-term reported animal impact (i.e.
  annual cattle stocking rates and animal stock densities) and soil bulk
  density within adaptive grazing ranches, though bulk densities increased
  with higher animal unit densities under conventional grazing. (Apfelbaum
  et al., 2022)

• Soil
  temperature was lower and soil moisture higher with AMP grazing than with
  HC (Heavy Continuous) and MC (Moderate Continuous) grazing. (Dowhower
  et al., 2020)
• When the
  grazing management was changed from the baseline MP to HC (High Stock
  Continuous) at one of the study ranches, the simulated average (1980–2013)
  annual surface runoff, sediment, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus
  (TP) losses increased by 148%, 142%, 144% and 158%, respectively. (Park
  et al., 2017)

• At the
  watershed-scale, changing grazing management from the baseline heavy
  continuous (HC) to adaptive multi-paddock (MP) reduced the average annual
  surface runoff, sediment, TN and TP loads at the watershed outlet by 39%,
  34%, 33% and 31%, respectively. (Park
  et al., 2017)

• Implementation
  of adaptive MP grazing reduced streamflow during the high flow conditions
  that have 10% exceedance probability, by about 20%, and hence reduced the
  chances of flooding downstream of the watershed. (Park
  et al., 2017)

• At the water
  catchment scale, heavy continuous grazing, relative to AMP grazing,
  increased surface runoff by 47%, decreased infiltration by 5%, and
  decreased streamflow by 29.5%. (Teague, 2018)
• In a region of
  extensive soil degradation in the southeastern United States, we evaluated
  soil C accumulation for 3 years across a 7-year chronosequence of three
  farms converted to management-intensive grazing. Here we show that these
  farms accumulated C at 8.0 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, increasing
  cation exchange and water holding capacity by 95% and 34%, respectively. (Machmuller et al.,
  2015)
• Water infiltrated soils on
  regenerative almond orchards six-fold faster than conventional almond
  orchard soils. (Fenster
  et al., 2021)
• Spring
  (March-May) concentrations of nitrate in drainage water collected from
  corn in the more diverse systems were 57% lower (p<0.005) than from
  corn in the 2-year system.(Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)

• Freshwater
  toxicity associated with herbicide use was 93% lower in the more diverse
  systems than in the conventional system.(Iowa
  State Marsden Experiment)

 

Weather

• Observations of 1976–2000 climate
  trends in the black, dark brown and brown soil zones of the Canadian
  Prairies showed that there have been substantial reductions in maximum
  temperature (1.7 ℃ decade^-1), diurnal
  temperature range (1.1 ℃ decade^-1) and solar
  radiation (1.2 MJ m² decade^-1), as well as a
  corresponding increase in precipitation (10.3 mm decade^-1) during the
  mid-June to July period. These findings are in opposition to trends that
  would be expected from climate change from an enhanced greenhouse effect,
  and suggest that there is substantial correspondence between reductions in
  summerfallow and changes in climate in the agricultural regions of the
  Canadian Prairies. (Gameda
  et al., 2006)